PHIL 110 Okanagan College The Power of Critical Thinking Discussion Each answer must be no longer than 10 sentences. You won’t receive marks after the firs

PHIL 110 Okanagan College The Power of Critical Thinking Discussion Each answer must be no longer than 10 sentences. You won’t receive marks after the
first 10 sentences so be precise!

Answers must be in your own words and must be completed on your own.

Please type your answers using 12 point font and one inch margins.
1. Which of the following are statements? Which are not?
a) Scooby Dooby Doo, where are you?
b) We got some work to do now.
c) Sometimes you wanna go, where everybody knows your name.
d) Who lives in a pineapple under the sea?
e) In west Philadelphia born and raised, on the playground was where I spent most of my
days.
2. Is the following passage an argument? (Clearly state if it is or is not an argument!) If it is an
argument, specify both the conclusion and the premises. (Please write out the premises and
conclusion and clearly label them). If it’s not an argument, explain why it is not an argument.
Without forests, Sasquatches cannot survive. They spend more than 95 percent of their
time among the trees, which, along with berries, insects, and small animals, provide more
than 99 percent of their food. Their only habitat is formed by the dense woodland forests
of British Columbia and Ontario.
3. What is a valid argument? What kinds of arguments can be valid arguments? What is a sound
argument? Can a valid argument be unsound, and if so, when is it unsound?
4. Is the following argument valid or invalid? (Clearly state!) What is the argument form?
(Name it and give the generalized form). Explain why the argument is valid or invalid. (Explain
why the conclusion follows from the premises or why the conclusion does not follow from the
premises).
If I study hard, attend lecture and tutorial, and do my homework, then I will pass
PHIL 110. I did pass PHIL 110. So I studied hard, attended lecture and tutorial,
and did my homework.

Philosophy 110-001
Summer 2020
5. What argument form is the following? Is the argument form always valid, invalid, or
sometimes valid? Explain why it is valid, invalid, or sometimes valid.
Either Justin Trudeau is Prime Minister of Canada or Donald Trump is President
of the United States. If Justin Trudeau is Prime Minister of Canada, then the
future is bright and hopeful. If Donald Trump is President of the United States,
then the end of the world is near. So, either the future is bright and hopeful or the
end of the world is near. 1
The Power of Critical Thinking
Introduction
• There are 2 main goals of this course:
o 1. It will show us how we think.
▪ Why do we think the way we do?
o 2. It will show us how to think better.
▪ Strategies and principles that will improve our thinking.
Introduction
• Example 1:
• You have a bat and a ball. The bat costs a dollar more
than the ball. Together they cost $1.10. How much
does the ball cost?
Introduction
• Example 2:
• According to the Old Testament, how many animals of
each kind did Moses load into the ark?
Introduction
• There examples demonstrate 2 things:
o 1. Our immediate answers are often wrong.
o 2. It’s easy to do better.
Introduction
• Opinions guide your actions, to success (or failure),
understanding (or ignorance), good decisions (or bad),
empowerment (or paralysis).
• The questions is, which opinions are the ones you can
trust?
• This kind of question about the quality of your beliefs
is the fundamental concern of critical thinking.
Critical Thinking
• Critical thinking is the
systematic evaluation or
formulation of beliefs or
statements by rational
standards.
• It focuses not on what causes
a belief, but on whether it is
worth believing.
Critical Thinking, cont’d
• Critical thinking
o is systematic because it involves distinct procedures and
methods.
o entails evaluation and formulation because it is used to assess
existing beliefs and to arrive at new ones.
o operates according to rational standards because it involves
beliefs that are judged by how well they are supported by
reasons.
Critical Thinking, cont’d
• Critical thinking involves logic.
o Logic is the study of good reasoning, or inference, and the
rules that govern it.
• Critical thinking encompasses:
o
o
o
o
o
Logic
The examination of the truth or falsity of statements
The evaluation of arguments and evidence
The use of analysis and investigation
The application of various other skills that help us to decided
what to believe or do.
Critical Thinking, cont’d
• Critical thinking leads to knowledge, understanding,
and empowerment.
o It helps use determine which beliefs are true, which are false,
and why they are true or false.
Why It Matters
• Why is critical thinking important? Why does it
matter?
• 1. “Who we are is defined by our actions and choices,
and our actions and choices are guided by our
thinking—so our thinking had better be good.”
o If we don’t choose our beliefs carefully, we are giving up
control over our own lives.
▪ If you haven’t chosen your beliefs, are they really yours?
▪ If they are not yours, then whose are they?
▪ Critical thinking is necessary for personal autonomy.
Why It Matters, cont’d
• 2. Critical thinking is important because of the impact
our decisions have on other people.
o Parents have an obligation to make good health care choices
on behalf of their children.
o Professionals have an obligation to provide good advice to
their clients.
o We all have an obligation to make good choices about how
we treat our shared environment.
Why It Matters, cont’d
• Our choice to apply
critical thinking skills is
not an all-or-nothing
decision.
o The more urgent
consideration is not just
whether we sometimes use
critical thinking, but how
well we use it.
Why It Matters, cont’d
• Critical thinking is
thinking outside the box.
o Considering alternative
explanations
o Rejecting biases,
stereotypes, and
superstitions
o Opening up to new
possibilities
Why It Matters, cont’d
• Critical thinking covers a lot of territory.
o It is used in every discipline, in all areas of public life, in all
the sciences, in all sectors of business, and in all occupations.
o It has played a major role in all the great endeavours of
humankind – scientific discoveries, technological innovations,
philosophical insights, social and political movements, etc.
o The lack of critical thinking has also affected humankind and
lead to many tragedies including wars, genocide, bigotries,
epidemics, etc.
How It Works
• The basics of good critical thinking are the same
everywhere:
o Claims and reasons
o Reasons and arguments
o Arguments in the rough
Claims and Reasons
• Statement: An assertion that something is or is not the
case.
o Examples:
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
“Bigfoot is hairy and smells bad.”
“A triangle has three sides.”
“Donald Trump will make America great again.”
“This classroom is haunted by an evil ghost.”
“This classroom is not haunted by an evil ghost.”
“I’m wearing a yellow tie.”
“There is an alien base on the dark side of the moon.”
Claims and Reasons, cont’d
• Statements, or claims, are the kind of things that are
either true or false (it’s sometimes hard to tell which).
• They can be positive (asserting a claim) or negative
(denying a claim).
• Statements can be used in arguments as either premises
or conclusions.
Claims and Reasons, cont’d
• Critical thinking is largely about evaluating statements
or formulating statements.
• Statements that have good reasons supporting them we
should accept.
• If they don’t have good reasons supporting them, we
shouldn’t cling to them too tightly.
• If there isn’t enough evidence to determine whether a
statement is true or false, we should suspend judgment.
Claims and Reasons, cont’d
• Some thoughts do not express statements:
o
o
o
o
Hold the door!
Do androids dream of electric sheep?
Hello.
Goodbye!
• None of these expressions assert that something is or is
not the case.
o They are not the sorts of things that are capable of being either true or
false!
Reasons and Arguments
• Reasons provide support for a statement.
• Argument: A group of statements in which some of
them (the premises) are intended to support another of
them (the conclusion).
o They are the main focus of critical thinking.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Premise: In an argument, a statement or reason given
in support of the conclusion.
o Premises may be known facts or assumed to be true for the
sake of the argument.
o The premises state reasons for the audience to accept that
conclusion.
o Premises provide reason (evidence, grounds) for believing
that the conclusion is true.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Conclusion: In an argument, the statement that the
premises are intended to support.
o What the speaker wants the audience to accept.
• Inference: The mental process of reasoning from a
premise or premises to a conclusion based on those
premises.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Examples of Arguments:
• 1. When Joseph takes the bus, he’s always late. And he’s
taking the bus today, so I’m sure he’s going to be late.
• 2. No one should drink beer brewed by a giant
corporation. Labatt’s Blue is brewed by a giant
corporation, so no one should drink it.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Is the following an argument?
• “The cost of the new XJ fighter jet is $650 million.
The cost of three AR21 bombers is $1.2 billion. The
Canadian government intends to fund such projects.”
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Being able to distinguish between passages that do and
do not contain arguments is a very important skill.
• “Lack of development”
o Writing that suffers from a “lack of development” includes
assertions of opinion, which are unsupported claims without
arguments.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• It is important to distinguish between explanations and
arguments and avoid confusing the two.
• Explanation: A statement or statements intended to
tell why or how something is the case.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Which is an argument? Which is an explanation?
• 1. “Adam obviously stole the money—he was the only
one with access to it.”
• 2. “Yes, Adam stole the money, but he did it because he
needed it to buy food.”
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Argument: 1. “Adam obviously stole the money—he
was the only one with access to it.”
o It’s trying to show something is the case.
• Explanation: 2. “Yes, Adam stole the money, but he
did it because he needed it to buy food.”
o I’m not trying to prove that Adam stole the money; instead, I
am attempting to explain why he did it.
• Explanations can be used as integral parts of
arguments.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• It is not always easy to recognize an argument and to
locate the premise and conclusion.
• Tips:
o Are indicator words being used?
o What is the structure of the argument?
o Is the conclusion in question form?
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Indicator words: Words that frequently accompany
arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion is
present.
o Common premise indicators:
▪ “Because,” “in view of the fact,” “since,” “as indicated by,” “given
that,” etc.
o Common conclusion indicators:
▪ “Therefore,” “so,” “consequently,” “which means that,” “as a result,”
etc.
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Problems with indicator words:
o Indicator words can be used in sentences that do not contain
arguments.
▪ “I am here because you asked me to come.”
▪ “I haven’t seen you since Canada Day.”
▪ “He was so sleepy he fell off his chair.”
o Arguments can be put forth without the use of any indicator
words:
▪ “We must each take steps to protect our environment. We can’t rely
on the government – federal and provincial regulators already have
their hands full. Government can’t be everywhere at once, and they
usually get involved only after some environmental catastrophe has
already happened. Individual responsibility is the key.”
Reasons and Arguments, cont’d
• Arguments can have any number of premises.
• The conclusion doesn’t always appear after all the
premises – it can appear anywhere in the argument.
• Try to find the conclusion first! It makes it easier to
determine the premises trying to support it.
Arguments in the Rough
• In most extended argumentative passages, premises and
conclusions make up only a small portion of the total
number of words.
• The trick is to identify the conclusion and premises
without getting lost in the “background noise.”
Arguments in the Rough
• [1] You have already said that you love me and that you can’t
imagine spending the rest of your life without me. [2] Once, you
even tried to propose to me. [3] And now you claim that you
need time to think about whether we should be married. [4] Well,
everything that you’ve told me regarding our relationship has
been a lie. [5] In some of your letters to a friend you admitted
you were misleading me. [6] You’ve been telling everyone that
we are just friends, not lovers. [7] And worst of all, you’ve been
secretly dating someone else. [8] Why are you doing this? [9] It’s
all been a farce!
Arguments in the Rough
• Premise 1: [5] In some of your letters to a friend you
admitted you were misleading me.
• Premise 2: [6] You’ve been telling everyone that we are
just friends, not lovers.
• Premise 3: [7] You’ve been secretly dating someone
else.
• Conclusion: [4] Everything that you’ve told me
regarding our relationship has been a lie.
2
The “Environment” of Critical
Thinking
Introduction
• Critical thinking happens in an “environment” that is
often hostile to it.
• There are thousands of ways that failures of reason can
happen.
o There is no cure for our fallibility, but we can take preventive
measures against known types of mistakes.
Introduction, cont’d
• What we need to do:
o Detect errors in our thinking
o Restrain the attitudes and feelings that can distort our
reasoning
o Achieve a level of objectivity that makes critical thinking
possible
• Doing this requires awareness, motivation, and practice.
Introduction, cont’d
• The most common barriers to critical thinking fall into
two main categories:
1.
Hindrances that arise because of how we think
▪ Caused by certain psychological factors (our fears, motivations,
attitudes, desires).
2.
Hindrances that occur because of what we think
▪ Caused by certain philosophical ideas we have (our beliefs about
beliefs).
Category 1: How We Think
• No one is immune to category 1 barriers.
o We all have psychological tendencies and habits that affect
our behaviour and shape our thinking.
Am I Really Special?
• There’s nothing wrong
with the life-affirming
belief that you are special
as an individual, but how
might this perspective
cloud your judgment of
the world around you?
Am I Really Special? cont’d
• Self-interested thinking takes several forms.
o 1. When you accept a claim solely because it furthers your
interests.
▪ Self-interest alone simply cannot establish the truth of a claim. If you
base beliefs on self-interest alone, then you are abandoning critical
thinking.
▪ “There should be no tests in this class because I don’t do well when I
take tests.”
o 2. When you accept claims for no other reason than that they
help you save face.
▪ “I can’t get a date because people are intimidated by my beauty.”
Am I Really Special? cont’d
• Self-centred thinking can be self-destructive.
• Self-interested thinking can:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Prevent careful evaluation of claims
Limit critical inquiry
Blind you to the facts
Provoke self-deception
Encourage rationalizations
Lead you to suppress or ignore evidence
Promote wishful thinking
Am I Really Special? cont’d
• When examining a claim or making a choice, you can
overcome the excessive influence of your own needs by
remembering these guidelines:
1.
2.
3.
Watch out when things get personal.
Be alert to ways that critical thinking can be undermined.
Ensure that nothing has been left out.
Am I Really Special? cont’d
1. Watch out When Things Get Personal
• You are most likely to let self-interest get in the way of
clear thinking when you have a big personal stake in the
conclusions you reach.
• If you sense a rush of emotions (anger, passion, fear)
when you deal with an issue, pause for a moment.
What’s happening and why?
Am I Really Special? cont’d
2. Be Alert to Ways That Critical Thinking Can Be
Undermined
• When you detect your own one-sided, self-centred
thinking, an alarm should go off in your head:
“Warning—faulty reasoning ahead!”
• Double-check your thinking, look for lapses in
arguments and claims, and weed them out.
Am I Really Special? cont’d
3. Ensure That Nothing Has Been Left Out
• A common flaw in reasoning is the failure to consider
evidence or arguments that do not support your
preferred claims.
• “Selective attention” is the preferential treatment of
some statements over others.
• The remedy is to make a conscious effort to look for
opposing evidence. This is a basic principle of scientific
work.
The Power of the Group
• We all belong to multiple groups and we can be
susceptible to pressure from all of them.
• There is often intense pressure to fit into groups and
adopt the ideas, attitudes, and goals endorsed by them.
• Group pressure to accept a statement or to act in a
certain way has several different faces.
The Power of the Group, cont’d
• Peer pressure: Group
pressure to accept or reject a
claim solely on the basis of
what one’s peers think or do.
• Appeal to popularity: The
fallacy of arguing that a claim
must be true merely because a
substantial number of people
believe it.
The Power of the Group, cont’d
• Pressure can also come from assuming that our group
is the best, the right one, the chosen one, and that all
other groups are not as good.
• The assumption that your group is better than others is
at the heart of prejudice.
The Power of the Group, cont’d
• Group thinking can also easily generate narrowmindedness, resistance to change, and stereotyping—
drawing conclusion about people based merely on their
membership in some group.
The Power of the Group, cont’d
• For critical thinkers, the best way to deal with the power
of the group is to make a conscious effort to
proportion your belief to the strength of reasons.
• Critical thinking is independent thinking.
Category 2: What We Think
• World view: A philosophy of life; a set of fundamental
ideas that helps us make sense of a wide range of
important issues in life.
o A world view defines for us what exists, what should be, and
what we can know.
o We all have a world view; all of us have adopted (or inherited)
certain fundamental ideas about the world.
o Elements of some world views—certain fundamental but
problematic ideas—may undermine critical thinking.
Subjective Relativism
• The truth of a claim does not depend on what a person
thinks.
o Just because you think that ghosts exist, does not make it true
that ghosts exist.
o Believing that something is true does not make it true.
• Subjective relativism: The idea that truth depends on
what someone believes.
Subjective Relativism, cont’d
• If you accept the notion of subjective relativism, you
are committing an error of reasoning known as the
subjectivist fallacy—accepting the notion of
subjective relativism or using it to try and support a
claim.
• “This is my truth.”
• “You have your own truth and I have mine.”
Subjective Relativism, cont’d
• Problems with Subjective Relativism:
o 1. Makes critical thinking unnecessary.
o 2. Abandons the notion of objective truth.
o 3. If we could make something true just by believing it, we
could never be wrong. It makes us infallible.
o 4. Subjective relativism is self-defeating.
Social Relativism
• The view that truth is relative to societies is referred to
as social relativism.
o It seems to imply an admirable egalitarianism—the notion
that the beliefs of different societies are all in some important
sense equal.
o Social relativism has the most of the same defects that
subjective relativism has.
▪ 1. Makes critical thinking unnecessary.
▪ 2. Abandons the notion of objective truth.
▪ 3. If we could make something true just by believing it, we could
never be wrong. It makes us infallible.
▪ 4. Subjective relativism is self-defeating.
Skepticism
• Philosophical skepticism: The view that we know
much less than we think we do or that we know
nothing at all.
• Philosophical skeptics: Those who embrace
philosophical skepticism.
Skepticism
• Philosophical skepticism says that knowledge requires
certainty – if we are to have knowledge about anything,
we must be certain of it.
o This means our knowledge isn’t really knowledge unless it is
beyond any possibility of doubt.
o The problem is that there is ALWAYS room for doubt.
Skepticism, cont’d
• A more reasonable approach is to say that our
knowledge does not require absolute certainty.
o There are plenty of claims that we can say we have
knowledge about, even though we may not be absolutely
certain of those things.
▪ “The moon is not made of green cheese.”
▪ “The sun will rise tomorrow.”
o These claims are beyond all reasonable doubt, and for practical
purposes, that’s more than enough.
Skepticism, cont’d
• Critical thinking’s task is not to help us find claims that
we cannot possibly doubt but to help us evaluate claims
that vary in degrees of reasonable doubt.
o Doubt is always possible, but it is not always reasonable or
useful.
3
Making Sense of Arguments
Argument Basics
• Arguments are the main tool used in philosophy.
o They attempt to show that some particular claim is true, or at
least plausible.
o Consists of a set of sentences consisting of premises and a
conclusion.
• Example:
o P1. Identical twins often have different IQ test scores.
o P2. Yet such twins inherit the same genes.
o C: So environment must play some part in determining IQ.
Argument Basics, cont’d
• Premises: The reasons given in support of …
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