Aspen University Human Development Throughout Lifespan Discussion Discussion Question: Given the various complications that can arise during the prenatal

Aspen University Human Development Throughout Lifespan Discussion Discussion Question:

Given the various complications that can arise during the prenatal period, in the U.S. about 6% of pregnant women do not obtain prenatal care or wait until their second trimester to obtain prenatal care. Choose one of the factors causing this and describe a reasonable way in which this can be addressed through community, church, or other non-governmental agencies.

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(please use my book access I gave you previously or use reference document below) Assignment Direction and Resources
Overview of the Course
Human development is an interdisciplinary field of study devoted to understanding human
constancy and change throughout the lifespan. Although great diversity exists among
investigators who study human development, all have a single goal in common: the desire to
describe and identify those factors that influence consistencies and transformations in people
from conception to death.
Theories of human development take a stance on three basic issues: (1) Is development a
continuous or discontinuous process? (2) Is there one course of development or many possible
courses? (3) Is development determined primarily by nature or nurture, and is it stable or open to
change? Modern theories include elements from both sides of these debates. The lifespan
perspective recognizes that great complexity exists in human change and the factors that underlie
it. This perspective assumes (1) that development is lifelong; (2) that it is multidimensional and
multidirectional; (3) that it is plastic, or flexible, at all ages; and (4) that it is influenced by
multiple, interacting forces.
The scientific study of human development dates to the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries. After Charles Darwin constructed his theory of evolution in the nineteenth century, the
scientific study of development evolved quickly. Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory and Erik
Erikson’s psychosocial theory viewed development as discontinuous (occurring in stages), but
Erikson added three adult stages to Freud’s five stages of childhood.
The behaviorist perspective—rejecting the psychoanalytic concern with the unseen workings of
the mind—focused on directly observable events: stimuli and responses. Albert Bandura’s social
learning theory, which expanded on the principles of conditioning, emphasizes modeling as a
powerful source of development and is still influential today. Swiss cognitive theorist Jean
Piaget, disagreeing with the behaviorists, developed a cognitive-developmental theory, based on
the idea that children actively construct knowledge. Recent theoretical perspectives include
information processing, which examines the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system;
ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology, which are concerned with the adaptive
value of behavior; Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which looks at the role of culture; and
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which examines development in the context of
a complex system of relationships.
Research in human development, like all scientific research, begins with a hypothesis, or
prediction about behavior drawn from a theory. Research methods commonly used to study
development include systematic observation, self-reports, clinical, or case studies, of single
individuals, and ethnographies of cultures or social groups.
Investigators of human development generally choose either a correlational research design,
which looks at relationships but cannot determine causality, or an experimental design, which
uses dependent and independent variables to determine cause and effect. Experiments may be
carried out in the laboratory or in the field. To study how individuals change over time,
investigators use longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential designs. Each method and design
has both strengths and limitations. Finally, conducting research with human subjects poses
special ethical dilemmas, particularly for children or elderly people who are ill or cognitively
impaired.
The second chapter in our module examines the foundations of development: heredity and
environment. The discussion begins at the moment of conception, an event that establishes the
new individual’s hereditary makeup. At conception, chromosomes containing genetic
information from each parent combine to determine characteristics that make us human and also
contribute to individual differences in appearance and behavior. Several different patterns of
inheritance are possible, ensuring that each individual will be unique. Serious developmental
problems often result from the inheritance of harmful recessive genes and by chromosomal
abnormalities. Fortunately, genetic counseling and prenatal diagnostic methods make early
detection of genetic problems possible. Many families turn to adoption, and most adoptees
ultimately fare well, despite some challenges.
Just as complex as heredity are the environments in which human development takes place. The
family has an especially powerful impact on development, operating as a network of
interdependent relationships in which members exert direct, indirect, and third-party influences
on one another. Family functioning and individual well-being are influenced considerably by
child-rearing practices as well as by socioeconomic status. Poverty and homelessness can pose
serious threats to development, while children in affluent families may suffer from
overscheduling and lack of emotional closeness. The availability of education of women in
particular promotes a better quality of life for both parents and children.
Beyond the immediate family, the quality of community life in neighborhoods, schools, towns,
and cities also affects children’s and adults’ development. Cultural values—for example, the
degree to which a society emphasizes collectivism versus individualism—combine with laws and
government programs to shape experiences in all of these contexts. Public policies are needed to
support the economic and social well-being of both children and the elderly. Compared to many
other Western countries, the United States lags behind in adequate programs for low-income
families and elderly people who live alone.
Heredity and environment are involved in every aspect of development. Some researchers
believe it is useful and possible to determine how much heredity and environment contribute to
individual differences. Others are more interested in discovering how these two major
determinants of development work together in a complex, dynamic interplay, and then using that
information to improve environments and further the development of individuals.
The story of prenatal development begins to unfold in the third chapter of this module. The vast
changes that take place during the 38 weeks of pregnancy are usually divided into three phases:
(1) the period of the zygote, (2) the period of the embryo, and (3) the period of the fetus.
Although the prenatal environment is far more constant than the world outside the womb, many
factors can affect the developing embryo and fetus. Various environmental agents, or teratogens,
and other maternal factors can damage the developing organism, making the prenatal period a
vulnerable time. For this reason, early and regular prenatal health care is vitally important to
ensure the health of mother and baby.
Childbirth takes place in three stages: (1) dilation and effacement of the cervix, (2) delivery of
the baby, and (3) delivery of the placenta. Production of stress hormones during labor helps
infants withstand oxygen deprivation, clear the lungs for breathing, and arouse them into
alertness at birth. Doctors and nurses use the Apgar Scale to assess the infant’s physical
condition quickly after birth.
Childbirth practices are molded by the society of which the mother and baby are a part.
Alternatives to traditional hospital childbirth include natural, or prepared, childbirth and delivery
in a freestanding birth center or at home. When pregnancy and birth complications are likely,
medical interventions help save the lives of many babies, but when used routinely, they may
inaccurately identify infants as being in danger when they are not. Preterm and low-birth-weight
infants are at risk for many problems. Interventions for preterm and low-birth-weight babies,
such as special infant stimulation, can help these infants develop favorably.
Infants begin life with remarkable skills relating to their physical and social worlds. Reflexes are
the newborn baby’s most obvious organized patterns of behavior. Throughout the day and night,
newborns move in and out of five different states of arousal. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep
seems to be especially critical, providing young infants with stimulation essential for central
nervous system development. Crying is the first way babies communicate, letting parents know
that they need food, comfort, and stimulation. The senses of touch, taste, smell, and sound are
well-developed at birth, while vision is the least mature of the newborn’s senses.
After childbirth, all family members need to meet the challenges of living in the new family unit
that has been created, but when parents support each other’s needs, the stress remains
manageable.
YouTube Video : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXIW_m0lo0U&feature=youtu.be
E Text Book: https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/#/
Login info: (nursesloany@gmail.com/Tutorhelp2019!) (Development through the Lifespan)
Read: Chapter 1-3 for this Assignment
•
Citation: Berk, Laura E. (2018). Development through the lifespan, 7th ed. Boston, MA:
Pearson. ISBN: 9780134419909
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