PSY 638 SNHU Discussion Socialization & Cultural Perspectives Discussion Considering Module Four’s readings, discuss the importance of positive socializati

PSY 638 SNHU Discussion Socialization & Cultural Perspectives Discussion Considering Module Four’s readings, discuss the importance of positive socialization and how different cultural and ethical perspectives influence different aspects of development, self-concept, and identity.

Evaluate environmental influences such as geographical variance, religious beliefs, and the construction of the school setting (e.g., boarding school versus public school, traditional versus experiential learning) for cultural and ethical differences on development.

In response to your peers, assume an opposing stance to their post and challenge their answer with your rationale, real-world examples, and scholarly research. Point out any potential negative consequences to their viewpoint.

To complete this assignment, review the Discussion Rubric document.

***PLEASE MAKE SURE TO USE THE ATTACHED RESOURCES AS REFERENCES AND ANSWER THE DISCUSSION EXACTLY!***

AFTER COMPLETING THE INITIAL POST (MINIMUM OF 200 WORDS), PLEASE ALSO RESPOND TO THE FOLLOWING TWO STUDENTS POSTS REGARDING THE SAME TOPIC(MINIMUM OF 150 WORDS):

STUDENT ONE:

The process of inducting an individual into the social world is socialization. It is how human infants will gain the necessary skills to perform as functioning members of society. There are many effects on the individual’s behavior and personality from socialization and is an integral part of forming personalities in children. It is the nature of socialization that dictates some attitudes and beliefs are reinforced and there is selective exposure to other possible attitudes. Connecting socially is important to health, happiness, and overall feelings of connectivity to society. The lack of such connections can lead to lowered self-esteem, isolation, and a shorter lifespan. A web-based survey studied 82 adult international adoptees and examined the relationship of parental support for cultural socialization and the effect on the adoptee’s self-esteem. The socialization of adopted children to their birth culture has become important to professionals, researchers, and adoptive parents as the number of international adoptions has increased. It has been suggested by studies that the cultural competence and the way adopted children are exposed to their cultural origins are positively linked to the adoptee’s ethnic identity and self-esteem (Mohanty, Keoske & Sales, n.d).

Mohanty, J. (n.d.). Family Cultural Socialization, Ethnic Identity, and Self-Esteem: Web-Based Survey of International Adult Adoptees. Retrieved July 16, 2020, fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jayashree_Mohanty/publication/254362340_Family_Cultural_Socialization_Ethnic_Identity_and_Self-Esteem/links/5af1c5b50f7e9ba36645d1e6/Family-Cultural-Socialization-Ethnic-Identity-and-Self-Esteem.pdf

STUDENT TWO:

Socialization in children is of particular importance. Every culture, religion and nationality has a different way of teaching children how to socialize, which in turn determines how they act and react as they grow older. Jirata (2014) discusses how the Guji-Oromo in southern Ethiopia teach their children. The Guji-Oromo use storytelling as a way to learn to socialize. This method teaches children how to learn from adults, respect their elders and value adult supervision. In a summer camp setting children are taught how to socialize in a very different method, teaching children how to socialize among themselves, without parental influence. Additionally, summer camps are usually a very cultural affair and this teaches children social and cultural norms (Demakova and associates, 2016). In a school setting children learn about different social, cultural and ethical norms. Religious based schools teach their religious ethical and cultural beliefs, which may differ from other religions.

This wide variety of perspectives that exist in regards to culture, religion, and ethnicity can have an impact on the development, self-concept and identity of children. Different cultures place emphasis on different facets of development; this in turn can have an impact on what the child will see as the important part of their lives. The research of Jerf and associates (2014) found that family religious belief had an effect on how effective parenting was. Furthermore, religious belief also had an effect on child outcome, both socially and psychologically. If a child’s religion forbids something, and they have been told this their entire childhood, it will be hard for them to change their viewpoint as it is ingrained in them.

Demakova, I. D., Valeeva, R. A., & Shipova, A. V. (2016). Socialization of Adolescents: Cultural Practices in Children’s Summer Camp. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11(7), 1631–1640.

Jirata, T. J. (2014). Positive Parenting: An Ethnographic Study of Storytelling for Socialization of Children in Ethiopia. Storytelling, Self, Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Storytelling Studies, 10(2), 156–176. https://doi-org.ezproxy.snhu.edu/10.13110/storselfsoci.10.2.0156

Jerf W. K. Yeung, & Yuk-Chung Chan. (2014). Parents’ Religious Involvement, Family Socialization and Development of Their Children in a Chinese Sample of Hong Kong. Social Indicators Research, 117(3), 987. Graduate Discussion Rubric
Overview
Your active participation in the discussions is essential to your overall success this term. Discussion questions will help you make meaningful connections
between the course content and the larger concepts of the course. These discussions give you a chance to express your own thoughts, ask questions, and gain
insight from your peers and instructor.
Directions
For each discussion, you must create one initial post and follow up with at least two response posts.
For your initial post, do the following:
 Write a post of 1 to 2 paragraphs.
 In Module One, complete your initial post by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. Eastern.
 In Modules Two through Ten, complete your initial post by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. of your local time zone.
 Consider content from other parts of the course where appropriate. Use proper citation methods for your discipline when referencing scholarly or
popular sources.
For your response posts, do the following:
 Reply to at least two classmates outside of your own initial post thread.
 In Module One, complete your two response posts by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. Eastern.
 In Modules Two through Ten, complete your two response posts by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. of your local time zone.
 Demonstrate more depth and thought than saying things like “I agree” or “You are wrong.” Guidance is provided for you in the discussion prompt.
Rubric
Critical Elements
Comprehension
Timeliness
Engagement
Exemplary
Develops an initial post with an
organized, clear point of view or
idea using rich and significant
detail (100%)
N/A
Provides relevant and
meaningful response posts with
clarifying explanation and detail
(100%)
Proficient
Develops an initial post with a
point of view or idea using
appropriate detail (90%)
Submits initial post on time
(100%)
Provides relevant response
posts with some explanation
and detail (90%)
Needs Improvement
Develops an initial post with a
point of view or idea but with
some gaps in organization and
detail (70%)
Submits initial post one day late
(70%)
Provides somewhat relevant
response posts with some
explanation and detail (70%)
Not Evident
Does not develop an initial post
with an organized point of view
or idea (0%)
Value
20
Submits initial post two or more
days late (0%)
Provides response posts that are
generic with little explanation or
detail (0%)
10
20
Critical Elements
Critical Thinking
Writing (Mechanics)
Exemplary
Draws insightful conclusions
that are thoroughly defended
with evidence and examples
(100%)
Initial post and responses are
easily understood, clear, and
concise using proper citation
methods where applicable with
no errors in citations (100%)
Proficient
Draws informed conclusions
that are justified with evidence
(90%)
Needs Improvement
Draws logical conclusions (70%)
Not Evident
Does not draw logical
conclusions (0%)
Value
30
Initial post and responses are
easily understood using proper
citation methods where
applicable with few errors in
citations (90%)
Initial post and responses are
understandable using proper
citation methods where
applicable with a number of
errors in citations (70%)
Initial post and responses are
not understandable and do not
use proper citation methods
where applicable (0%)
Total
20
100%
The Early Development of Gender Differences
Author(s): Matthew H. McIntyre and Carolyn Pope Edwards
Source: Annual Review of Anthropology , 2009, Vol. 38 (2009), pp. 83-97
Published by: Annual Reviews
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/20622642
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Review of Anthropology
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The Early Development
of Gender Differences
Matthew H. Mclntyre1 and Carolyn Pope Edwards2
1 Department of Anthropology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816;
email: mmcintyr@mail.ucf.edu
2 Departments of Psychology and Child, Youth, and Family Studies, University of Nebraska,
Lincoln, Nebraska 68588; email: cedwards@unlnotes.unl.edu
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2009.38:83-97
Key Words
First published online as a Review in Advance on
June 17,2009
The Annual Review of Anthropology is online at
anthro.annualreviews.org
This article’s doi:
10.11467annurev-anthro-091908-1643 3 8
Copyright ? 2009 by Annual Reviews.
All rights reserved
0084-6570/09/1021-0083$20.00
reproductive ecology, evolutionary psychology, patriarchy,
dominance, temperament
Abstract
This article reviews findings from anthropology, psychology, and other
disciplines about the role of biological factors in the development of
sex differences in human behavior, including biological theories, the
developmental course of sex differences, and the interaction of biologi
cal and cultural gendering processes at different ages. Current evidence
suggests that major biological influences on individual differences in
human gender, to the extent that they exist, operate primarily in early
development, during and especially prior to puberty. Biological effects
are likely to be mediated by relatively simple processes, like temper
ament, which are then elaborated through social interactions (as with
mother and peers) into more complex gendered features of adult person
ality. Biological anthropologists and psychologists interested in gender
should direct more attention to understanding how social processes in
fluence the development and function of the reproductive endocrine
system.
83
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INTRODUCTION
physical conflict with others who are seeking
mates,
or coercion of the potential mates them
The purpose of this review is to summarize the
selves (Bateman 1948, Clutton-Brock & Parker
current evidence about the role of biological
1992, Dewsbury 1982). For reasons that are not
factors in the development of human gender
fully
understood (Kokko et al. 2006, Wade &
over the life course. Rather than accept the
Shuster 2002), parental investment activities of
distinction between biological sex and cultural
many kinds are often, but not always, enacted by
gender, we employ the term gender very
one physical form, which is also often the form
broadly to include both sex differences them
with larger gametes, called female, and mating
selves and the cultural and biological processes
activities by another physical form, often with
that shape them. At the risk of over-reaching,
smaller, more motile gametes, called male.
we address between-sex differences, related
In most mammals, virtually all parental in
within-sex variation, and broader features of
vestment is done by females and all mating ef
human social systems such as patriarchy. Our
fort by males, resulting in more notable sex
review begins with biological theory about
differences than in other taxa (Clutton-Brock
gender and its application to the evolution
1989, Orians 1969). The few exceptions are in
of human sex differentiation, followed by
species in which roles may be partially mixed
a discussion of the developmental course
and the sexes have less notable differences, and
of human sex differences and the various
which more often have mating systems charac
biological and social gendering processes. As
terized as monogamous (Jarman 1983, Plavcan
such, we also consider research from many
2001). The primate order includes a relatively
disciplines, including tentative consideration
large
of sociocultural studies conducted from
a number of monogamous species, often
characterized by some level of male parental
humanistic perspective. One important topic
investment (Fuentes 1998). The characteriza
that we unfortunately leave out is sexuality.
tion of patterns of human parental investment
and mating effort has been the subject of debate
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES ABOUT
among
HUMAN GENDER
evolutionary anthropologists (Hawkes
et al. 1991, 2001; Hill & Kaplan 1993; Kaplan
et al. 2000), partly because of the substantial
Biological theory about gender (even if that
among even hunter-gatherer societies
term is not always used) refers to the variation
exis
in foraging and marriage systems (Wobst 1978).
tence, in sexually reproducing species, of two
Geary (2002, 2006) has suggested that
distinct reproductive strategies called parental
evolved human psychological sex differences in
investment and mating effort, which have
been elaborated from Darwin’s descriptionclude
of {a) adaptations for child care in women
sexual selection. Parental investment encom
and interpersonal dominance striving in men,
both of which should be largely primitive
passes activities that are cosdy to parents but
evolutionarily in that similar sex differences
direcdy contribute to the growth or survival
are present even in nonprimate mammals,
of offspring (Trivers 1972). For some species,
(b) adaptations for coalitional aggression in
this investment consists almost entirely of the
men, which might be homologous with chim
initial cytoplasm contained in the gametes, with
(Wrangham 1999), and (c) adaptations
no further support provided by parents, panzees
but
supporting the sexual division of labor, with par
mammals have a number of additional parental
ticular focus on hunting. The latter two do
functions including lactation. Parental invest
mains can be considered relatively more derived
ment is, in principle, common to both sexual
as athey would have evolved later.
and asexual reproduction. However, finding
Feminine psychological adaptations for
mate is only relevant to sexual reproduction. In
parental care have been linked to the psy
some species, finding a mate may involve travel
chometric construct of empathy, and reduced
over long distances, displays of health or beauty,
84 Mclntyre Edwards
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empathy in men has been linked, in turn, to related to hunting ability, the psychological di
lower thresholds for aggression (Baron-Cohen mensions investigators have proposed to sup
2002, Campbell 2006). Although dominance port sex differences in hunting and gathering
striving has been studied using a variety of tech
in the literature are mostly cognitive, e.g., spa
niques, it has not yet been closely linked with,
tial rotation and object memory, rather than re
or developed as, a particular psychometric con
lated to emotions or personality, in keeping with
an emphasis on cognitive changes in human
with narcissism, sensation seeking, instrumen evolution (Kaplan et al. 2000).
struct (Burgoon et al. 1998). Weak associations
tal motivations, and externalizing behavior are
The role of the reproductive endocrine sys
likely, and there may be a developmental link tem in human sex differences has been assessed
between low empathy and dominance striving, using several techniques. For concurrent ef
making femininity-masculinity at least partly fects in children and adults, concentrations of
unidimensional (Campbell 2006, Mclntyre & sex hormones can be measured in the blood
Hooven 2009). Theorists have proposed that or saliva. For prenatal effects, several indirect
the primitive sex differences in parental care
and interpersonal dominance striving should
techniques have been used, including compar
ison of children with congenital adrenal hy
be reduced in humans owing to relatively low perplasia with controls, concentrations of sex
hormones in amniotic fluid, and the relative
levels of polygyny and high levels of male
parental investment (Geary 2002). Despite
lengths of the index and ring fingers, abbre
such a reduction, it would be surprising not viated as 2D:4D (Cohen-Bendahan et al. 2005,
to find associations of basic psychological di Mclntyre 2006).
mensions of parental investment or male-male
competition with biological factors, such as
sex hormones, given the established role of
these factors in nonhuman sex differences.
Wliere interesting and surprising results might
SOME EVIDENCE FROM ADULT
MEN AND WOMEN
Some evidence indicates at least a small role of
be found is in the interaction of these primitive
the reproductive endocrine system (especially
androgens, like testosterone) in the ongoing
the evolved processes related to biological gen maintenance of adult sex differences in em
der operate in different cultural and economic pathy and dominance striving. For example,
conditions?
Deady et al. (2006) found a negative association
Human sex differences in coalitional aggres of basal testosterone concentrations with ma
biological factors with social forces. How do
sion and the division of labor are of particular ternal ambitions in women, and Hermans et al.
interest to anthropologists because of their rel
(2006b) found evidence that an exogenous dose
atively recent evolution and probable role in the of testosterone reduces empathy as assessed by
origins of patriarchy (Smuts 1995). It is difficult unconscious facial mimicry. However, levels of
to predict how such biological systems might testosterone in women vary over the course of
operate given the relative uniqueness, among the menstrual cycle and even over the course
all animals, of coalitional aggression and hunt of several days (Sellers et al. 2007). A number
ing as sex dimorphic features. The psycholog of studies have found associations between
ical construct that has been most commonly basal or exogenous levels of testosterone
and behaviors or attitudes associated with
proposed as reflecting adaptations for coali
tional aggression is called social dominance ori dominance striving in men and women (Dabbs
entation, defined as “the extent to which one 1997, Wirth & Schultheiss 2007) and women
desires that one’s in-group dominate and be
superior to out-groups” (Pratto et al. 1994,
alone (Cashdan 1995, Grant & France 2001,
Hermans et al. 2006a).
p. 742), which shows substantial sex differences.
However, as noted by O’Carroll (O’Carroll
1998), the interpretation of these results is
Although many physical sex differences may be
www.annualreviews.org Early Development of Gender Differences 8$
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complicated by the interesting, and better es relationships through moralistic aggression.
tablished, observation that men’s testosterone However, as we noted, social dominance orien
levels also fall in response to failures in domi tation is the most established measure of group
nance contests of various kinds (Archer 2006,
level affiliation and a recent study found no
Dabbs & Dabbs 2000, Elias 1981, Mazur & association of social dominance orientation
Booth 1998), especially for men who strive with either testosterone or 2D:4D (Johnson
more for dominance (Schultheiss et al. 2005).
Archer (2006) proposed that this response is
et al. 2006, Mclntyre et al. 2007).
There are a number of established sex dif
part of a primitive, evolved system by which
ferences in the performance of Western adults
men’s willingness to enter dominance contests
on a number of cognitive tests, including men
is informed by their previous record of success.
tal rotation of shapes on which men perform
Recent evidence suggests that willingness to
better and verbal and object memory on which
enter new contests is influenced by basal testos women perform better (Kimura 1999). How
terone level (Mehta et al. 2008) and/or testos ever, Ecuyer-Dab & Robert (2004) have noted
terone response to winning or losing (Carre & that there are two competing evolutionary in
McCormick 2008), and the effect is probably terpretations of these differences. They may be
mediated by subtle physiological, rather than part of the primitive systems supporting sex dif
ferences in ranging and mate seeking (Gaulin
psychological, shifts (van Honk et al. 2004).
Of course, hormones also have many other & FitzGerald 1986, Jones et al. 2003), or they
nonpsychological functions, including the reg may be derived specifically to support hunting
ulation of muscle mass, which could be evolu by men and gathering by women (Silverman
& Eals 1992). A sex difference in throwing and
tionarily meaningful (Bribiescas 2001).
In keeping with the view that male parental
targeting ability might be more recently derived
investment increased during human evolution,
in response to male hunting (Westergaard et al.
a number of studies have identified possible
suppressive effects of romantic relationships,
marriage, or fatherhood on testosterone lev
els in men from several societies and, surpris
2000), but the developmental trajectory of these
abilities is obviously complex and includes fac
tors such as size and strength, which are often
ignored (Jones & Marlowe 2002). Some of the
effects of androgens on mental rotation tasks
ingly, lesbians (Gray 2003; Gray et al. 2002,
2004, 2006, 2007; Mazur & Michalek 1998; may not be related to cognitive ability (Hooven
Mclntyre et al. 2006; van Anders & Watson et al. 2004), and these associations vary across
2006, 2007). Many of these studies have re cultures (Yang et al. 2007).
social and psychological factors might play sub
Given the limitations of evidence coming
from adult sex differences, it is useful to con
tle roles in regulating the suppression of testos
sider the role of biological factors in the ear
vealed interesting interactions suggesting that
lier development of sex differences in infancy
In the case of coalitional aggression, little and childhood. Researchers with both biolog
evidence indicates that hormones play a major ical and sociocultural perspectives have turned
role in sex differences. Burnham (2007) found to studies of children to reduce the complex
terone and mating effort.
that men with higher testosterone reject low of problem of personal life histories, which result
fers in an economic experiment called the ulti from the continuous transaction of physical, fa
matum game. This could be interpreted simply milial, and sociocultural processes with the de
as a reaction to a perceived threat to personal veloping individual. However, we would take
status or dominance. However, he also noted this a step further and argue that a better un
a nonsignificant trend for men with higher
testosterone to make larger offers in the game.
derstanding of biosocial interactions over the
life course also provides valuable insights into
Together these trends might suggest a role for how biological systems affect sex differences, al
testosterone in the establishment of reciprocal lowing for the formulation of hypotheses about
86 Mclntyre Edwards
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how sex differences might develop in a vari
ety of sociocultural systems, including ones that
no longer exist (and ones that might someday
exist).
remain poorly understood because most of
the proposals have found limited support
(Maccoby et al. 1984).
Adults play only a small role in directly en
couraging sex segregation in Western societies
THE DEVELOPMENTAL COURSE
OF GENDER
(Aydt & Corsaro 2003, Maccoby 1998, Thorne
1993), and their role appears to be even more
limited in many other societies in which chil
Edwards (1993) noted several differences be dren are under less supervi…
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