Milgram and Zimbardo Films Ethical Violations Discussion Please watch the following two films:a. Milgram: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQb. Zim

Milgram and Zimbardo Films Ethical Violations Discussion Please watch the following two films:a. Milgram: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQb. Zimbardo: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZwfNs1pqG0Consider both films and discuss what ethical violations may have occurred. Note specifically which General Principles (e.g., Principle A) might be relevant. What are some other ways that the research could be carried out with less potential harm?300 words minimum, references attached. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Abnormal and
Clinical Psychology
Ethics Codes
Contributors: Benek Altayli & Deborah Patz Clarke
Edited by: Amy Wenzel
Book Title: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology
Chapter Title: “Ethics Codes”
Pub. Date: 2017
Access Date: May 27, 2019
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks,
Print ISBN: 9781483365831
Online ISBN: 9781483365817
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483365817.n542
Print pages: 1353-1356
© 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please note that the pagination of the online
version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
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A code of ethics is usually established by a professional order, as a way to protect the public and reputation
of the professionals and their fields. To this end, there are various codes within the medical and mental health
fields. The American Counseling Association Code of Ethics, the National Association of Social Workers Code
of Ethics, and the American Medical Association Code of Medical Ethics are a few examples. For the purposes of this entry, the focus is on the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (referred to as the Ethics Code). This document is a series of guidelines,
both suggested and specific, to which all psychologists in the United States are expected to adhere, and it is
intended to serve as the foundation of psychologists’ clinical work and professional behavior.
History
Initially, the need to create a document that outlined ethical standards for the psychology profession arose in
the post–World War II era, due to the new demands posed by wars. Edward Tolman, who put together the
APA Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychologists in 1947, started the preparation for the first edition,
published in 1953. This committee was tasked with creating a document that described a code of ethics at
a time when psychologists started to work with soldiers returning from war with serious posttraumatic conditions that affected both their families and their communities. The intent of this set of standards was to help
psychologists deal systematically with the serious ethical and moral issues they had begun to encounter.
The APA Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychologists gathered reports of “critical incidents” that
demonstrated morally and ethically difficult situations with clients, research assistants, research participants,
and students. When the document was ready for publication, the Ethics Code was 170 pages long and included examples and case studies of various scenarios.
Until the 1992 version, the APA Ethical Standards of Psychologists favored the strategy of laying out aspirational principles. Aspirational principles are broadly worded ideals that do not define what one should do in
a particular situation, or what would be right or wrong behaviors. By 1980, with an increase in legal cases
in which psychologists were involved, the idea of changing the approach of the document from aspirational
principles to enforceable standards started to gain traction. The idea was to create a set of standards that
specifically describes behaviors required and prescribed by the profession to serve as a basis for adjudicating
grievances. The ethical principles and the code of conduct document has maintained this change in tone and
mission since 1992. The 2002 version of the Ethics Code, which was adopted in June 2003, is a 16-page
document with clear behavioral distinctions and rational principles that represent a type of legalistic legacy. In
2010, an amendment was made to the Ethics Code, and this amended version is the principal ethics document guiding psychologists today.
Structure of the APA Ethics Code
Following an introduction and explanation of applicability, the Ethics Code is divided into three main sections:
(1) Preamble and General Principles, (2) Standards, and (3) Amendments.
General Principles
This section consists of five aspirational guidelines (Principles A through E). These unenforceable principles
are meant to inspire psychologists to uphold the profession’s highest ethical ideals.
A. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence: This general principle emphasizes that psychologists
should try to provide benefit and avoid causing harm in their work with humans and animals.
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B. Fidelity and Responsibility: This principle exhorts psychologists to develop relationships
based on trust and to act in the best interests of colleagues. They must maintain professional conduct, accept responsibility for their behavior, and, when possible, provide pro
bono services in their communities.
C. Integrity: Here, psychologists are encouraged to be accurate, clear, and honest in their
professional work. This includes keeping promises and not plagiarizing.
D. Justice: Providing equal access to service and being aware of personal biases that might
limit this access are the key points of this principle.
E. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity: Psychologists are reminded to respect others’
right to self-determination and to protect those with impaired ability to make autonomous
decisions.
Ethical Standards
The Ethical Standards make up the bulk of the Ethics Code. Divided into 10 sections with 15 subsections,
these are the enforceable elements of the code.
1. Resolving Ethical Issues
Section 1 addresses violations of the Ethics Code or conflicts that may arise between the Ethics Code and
legal/organizational demands. The standards are generally in line with national and state laws and organizational regulations, but if there is a conflict between law and the Ethics Code, psychologists are exhorted to
follow the stricter Ethics Code. Ethics violations are addressed informally before a formal complaint is filed
with the Ethics Board. Noncompliance with the Ethics Board is considered a violation in and of itself, as is
discrimination against someone who has been the subject of an ethics complaint.
2. Competence
Psychologists are bound to act within the scope of their competence, practicing only in areas in which they
have received adequate training and supervision. An exception to this rule is made for providing services in
emergencies, at which time psychologists may provide mental health services until the emergency resolves
or a more appropriate provider is available. When a psychologist’s work is compromised due to personal circumstances, he or she must refrain from professional activities until a resolution of such issues has been
reached.
3. Human Relations
This section addresses the imbalance of power inherent in a therapeutic relationship. Psychologists must
clearly define the nature, objectives, and scope of professional services, especially when offered through
organizations. When hired by third parties, psychologists clearly define their roles and delineate who is the
client. Clients’ understanding of the relationship must be obtained through written informed consent and, when
individuals are legally incapable of giving informed consent, in the form of verbal assent. Discrimination, sexual harassment, exploitative relationships, and working with people against whom a psychologist has personal
biases (e.g., due to sexual orientation) are forbidden. Multiple relationships (i.e., being in a professional and
other role with a person) are warned against when they could affect objectivity, competence, or effectiveness.
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For example, a psychologist might exert undue influence when counseling his or her child’s schoolteacher.
Similarly, psychologists are told not to work in situations in which their objectivity could be compromised. Psychologists should make provisions to ensure continuity of client service should they become unavailable due
to circumstances such as retirement, illness, or death.
4. Privacy and Confidentiality
Generally speaking, everything psychologists do with their clients is confidential, and measures must be taken
to ensure this confidentiality in oral, written, and electronic mediums. Clients need to be made aware of the
limits of this confidentiality and provide consent when their information is used for didactic purposes. If a psychologist consults about a case, he or she should take reasonable steps to protect the client’s identity. Clients’
information may be disclosed only by permission or when required by law.
5. Advertising and Public Statements
Psychologists represent themselves accurately in all settings, including advertising, directories, applications
for licensing/credentials, legal proceedings, and all publications. Neither they nor anyone representing them
may misrepresent their degrees, credentials, levels of expertise, research, fees, or associations. If a psychologist is presenting a workshop, he or she must accurately describe the offerings and the intended audience.
Media statements must be commensurate with the psychologist’s level of expertise. Psychologists may not
solicit testimonials of business from clients or other people who might be subject to undue influence.
6. Record Keeping and Fees
Psychologists must keep accurate records of client contact to ensure continuity of services from one provider
to the next, to document research procedures, to ensure any institutional requirements are upheld, and to
ensure accurate billing; maintaining the confidentiality of these records is paramount. Fees are to be stated
clearly as early as possible in the professional relationship, and any issues with the fees need to be discussed. When insurance companies or other third parties are billed, psychologists must accurately report
fees, services provided, and client diagnoses. Psychologists may use collection agencies, but clients should
be given the opportunity to rectify their accounts before such services are engaged. Records may not be
withheld in emergency circumstances due to nonpayment of fees. Fees must be based on actual services
provided, not referrals. Bartering (trading goods or services for psychological care) is allowed only when the
relationship does not have the potential to be exploitative. For example, trading psychotherapy for babysitting
services would be contraindicated, whereas a service with a fixed market value, such as a one-time car repair, might be acceptable.
7. Education and Training
When psychologists design education and training programs, they must do their best to accurately describe
the program’s intended audience, educational objective, stipends, benefits, and requirements. Course syllabi
must be accurate, and course material must provide appropriate knowledge and experience. Should mandatory individual or group therapy be part of a training program, students may choose a therapist unaffiliated
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with the program. Programs cannot require the disclosure of personal information such as prior psychological
treatment unless this has been explicitly stated in the admissions materials and/or it is needed to evaluate
level of current impairment. Feedback based on actual performance must be given to students and supervisees in a regular and timely manner. Sexual relationships between psychologists and students/supervisees
is never appropriate.
8. Research and Publication
When psychologists conduct research, they must get relevant institutional approval. Psychologists must inform all research participants of the purpose, scope, and risks of the research and obtain participants’ informed consent, especially when recording voices and images. Under certain circumstances, such as when
the research involves noninvasive study of normal behaviors (naturalistic observations) or anonymous questionnaires, informed consent may not be necessary. Psychologists must seek to avoid deception in research
and, if unavoidable, debrief participants as soon as feasible. Research animals are to be treated humanely
and are to be appropriately anesthetized to minimize any necessary pain. Psychologists must ensure that
they accurately report data, do not fabricate results, and avoid plagiarism by presenting and taking responsibility solely for their own work. In publications, credit is to be based on actual contribution, not professional
status, and previously published data may not be presented as new. Should another researcher wish to replicate a study, psychologists may not withhold data on which their conclusions are based.
9. Assessments
Assessments used to provide opinions of individuals’ psychological characteristics must be current, valid, reliable, and properly applied by qualified professionals. If trainees administer assessments, they must be adequately supervised, with the supervisor retaining responsibility for scoring and interpreting the results. Written
consent and/or verbal assent, including an explanation of the assessment measures, purpose of testing, fees,
and any limits of confidentiality (e.g., results have been requested by and will be shared with a third party),
must be obtained. Psychologists should explain results of assessments to the testee or the testee’s representative unless this is contraindicated (e.g., in forensic evaluations). In certain circumstances, raw test data may
be withheld to protect a client from harm or misuse of the information. When releasing test results, psychologists must maintain the security of the test materials in accordance with law and the Ethics Code.
10. Therapy
Client welfare is always paramount in a therapeutic relationship. As early as possible, psychologists must obtain informed consent, ensuring that clients understand the nature and course of therapy, risks (if any), fees,
involvement of third parties as applicable, and the limits of confidentiality. Clients may ask questions and get
suitable answers. Trainees should make their status known to clients and give clients the name of their supervisor, with whom legal responsibility rests. Informed consent with couples, families, and groups must additionally clarify who are the clients, what services will be provided, and additional limits of confidentiality. Should a
psychologist be asked to perform a conflicting role (e.g., testifying in a divorce proceeding), he or she should
take reasonable steps to modify or withdraw from one of the roles. Psychologists carefully consider risks to
client welfare when deciding whether to do therapy with someone already being seen by another therapist.
Psychologists are prohibited from all sexual behaviors with clients or their relatives, guardians, or significant
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others and are forbidden from accepting former sexual partners as clients. At least 2 years must pass after
therapy has ended before psychologists can begin a sexual relationship with a former client; even then, psychologists must be able to prove that the relationship does not exploit or adversely influence the former client
in any way. A psychologist should terminate therapy when he or she is endangered by a client, or the client is
no longer benefitting from the relationship. When appropriate, psychologists provide pretermination counseling and/or relevant referrals.
2010 Amendments
In February 2010, APA’s Council of Representatives voted to amend the association’s Code of Ethics to make
clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights.
Application of Ethics Code in Ethical Decision Making
Ethical decision making and application of the Ethics Code are rarely straightforward. A well-balanced ethical
decision needs to consider four factors. First and foremost, knowledge and understanding of the essence of
the professional Ethics Code are imperative. Another factor is knowing and following the federal and state
laws pertaining to the dilemma at hand. Third, policies and procedures of the organizations in which psychologists work are always relevant and important in the decision-making process. Finally, knowledge of the Ethics
Code alone does not create ethical behavior; a psychologist’s individual characteristics, such as values, personal and professional background, and individual moral code must also be taken into account.
Numerous ethical decision-making models have been created, each with a slightly different emphasis on various aspects of the decision-making process. Most models include the following steps:
• Identifying ethical aspects of the problem and clarifying the dilemmas that pose the problem to be
solved by the decision
• Identifying relevant ethical and other standards (e.g., applicable laws, policies, and procedures of organizations)
• Determining relevant facts and collecting additional information as needed
• Identifying options and selecting an action plan (i.e., the ethical decision)
• Taking action and evaluating results
The ethical decision-making models that provide a logical and reasoned process assume a rational, conscious, quasi-legal reasoning process, in accordance with the style with which the Ethics Code and the laws
are written. If followed, these models reduce the risk of oversight, creating a structured process whereby the
decision makers focus on all the relevant and critical aspects of the situation, prior to making decisions.
Ethical knowledge does not invariably produce ethical behavior. Reported decisions and behaviors tend to
be affected by a large array of factors (e.g., personal and interpersonal influences) apart from codified rules.
Numerous studies are examining how biases and heuristics influence the perceptive and thought processes,
and some decision-making models attempt to take into account these factors. In essence, decision makers
can optimize their ethical reasoning by identifying and challenging personal factors that play into their decision-making process, in addition to obtaining sound working knowledge of the Ethics Code and the laws
influencing professional judgment and behavior.
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See alsoAssent; Assessment; Confidentiality; Duty to Warn; Emergency Treatment; Law and Mental Health:
Overview; Legal Rights of Mental Health Patients; Malpractice; Mental Health Care in the U.S. Justice System; Negligence; Private Practice; Professional and Ethical Issues: Overview; Sexual Harassment; Subpoenas and Court Orders; Termination of Treatment
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codes of ethics
ethics
coding
psychologists
ethical decision making
informed consent
clients
Benek Altayli & Deborah Patz Clarke
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483365817.n542
10.4135/9781483365817.n542
Further Readings
American Psychological Association. (2010). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct, with the
2010 amendments. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/principles.pdf
Bersoff, D. N. (2008). Ethical conflicts in psychology (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Rogerson, M. D., Gottleib, M. C., Handelsman, M. M., Knapp, S., & Younggren, J. (2011). Nonrational process
in ethical decision making. American Psychologist, 66(7), 614–623.
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The SAGE Encyclopedia of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Abnormal and
Clinical Psychology
Professional and Ethical Issues: Overview
Contributors: Amy Wenzel & Daniella Cortez Cavenagh
Edi…
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