HIST 105 San Diego State University Roman Empire Midterm Questions I will provide sample essay and key terms (what,why, when (year), who, importance), note

HIST 105 San Diego State University Roman Empire Midterm Questions I will provide sample essay and key terms (what,why, when (year), who, importance), notes cp5-8 (please focus on notes and use the primary sources in it), and prompt. Choose 2 essay topics from all 5 of them (I think the first two are the easiest). You can also use online sources. I will provide textbook if you need it, but I think the notes & wikipedia will work just fine). Key terms for chapter 5.
Etruscans
patricians
plebeians
Struggle of the Orders
Twelve Tables
Hannibal
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Gaius Marius
Pompey
Julius Caesar
Cleopatra
Octavian (later the emperor Augustus)
Key terms for chapter 6.
Augustus
Virgil (and the Aeneid)
Pax Romana
Trajan
Hadrian
Jesus of Nazareth
St. Paul
Chapter 6 Overview. The Roman Empire.
The Roman Republic is defined as the time from 509 B.C.
when the Republic first emerged until the Battle of Actium
in 31 B.C.
The time we call the Roman Empire begins from 31 B.C. with
the victory of Octavian (soon to become the emperor Augustus)
until the conventional date of 476 A.D.
The Age of Augustus.
When Octavian won the civil war between himself and Marc Antony who
was
allied with Cleopatra, it brought to an end the period of intermittent civil
war that had
spanned just over 100 years, but it also represented the real end of the
Roman
Republic itself. From that point forward, the Roman imperial system was
no
longer governed by political institutions that had featured checks and
balances
on power. Now, it effectively became a thinly disguised monarchy based
upon
the direct control of the army and the imperial bureaucracy, constantly
overseeing
the patchwork of relationships between Rome and her network of
foreign allies or client
states and territories.
As you read in your text, after Octavian became the sole leader of
Rome and
was awarded the name Augustus, he was careful to maintain a facade
or appearance
that involved not calling himself dictator, which had led to the death of
Julius Caesar.
Nevertheless, step by step, his power increased so that more and more
authority
was centralized in his hands. He co-ruled with the Roman Senate,
whose membership
he directly manipulated. This meant that over time the participation by
representatives of the common people in the assemblies effectively
declined.
The traditional offices of the Republic became ceremonial positions
without
any real power.
Why did the Roman people and political elites accept this?
Because they were sick and tired of civil war and social instability.
Augustus did a number of things to consolidate his rule. Here is a list
of things to keep in mind.
He was careful to maintain the appearance of political tradition. He
referred
to himself as princeps, meaning first citizen, emphasizing his common
status with the rest of the population, although it was a status with a
special distinction, obviously.
He cut down the number of soldiers by about half. Most of those
discharged
were those who had fought for Marc Antony, keeping some soldiers and
officers
whom he had pardoned and considered likely to be loyal. The size of
the army
now numbered roughly 150,000 men, divided among 28 legions. (Keep
something
in mind. Your text tells you that a legion comprised about 5,400 men.
That was
the official strength. Army units were often understrength, not having all
the slots filled for which they were authorized.)
In addition, the strength of the army was supplemented by auxiliary
units, men from
the provinces of the empire who served in their own special units, often
formed on
a tribal or ethnic basis. Sometimes they were stationed separately,
sometimes with
or near the regular legions themselves. These totaled somewhere
between
130,000 and 150,000 men.
So in total, the Roman Empire during the time of Augustus had
somewhere between
250,00 to 300,000 men to guard the frontiers and maintain order inside
the provinces.
That was not a lot of men, considering that by the time that Augustus’
reign had ended,
the empire contained almost as much territory as the 48 contiguous
states of the United
States. Think of the map of the United States, but without Alaska or
Hawaii.
They performed those tasks without anything like the transportation,
communication
or surveillance technology that we have today. Serving in the auxiliaries
was attractive to many men. At the end of service, they were promised
Roman citizenship
and often a bonus and plot of land to settle on. Augustus established a
number of
colonies of military veterans in Italy and all over the empire. All of this
helped integrate
people and regions into the Roman administrative and social spheres.
Augustus ensured that the Roman aristocracy continued to have a
respected status
and important role in the new order. They served in the Senate, which
passed decrees
that had the force of law. They served as governors in the provinces
and in the higher
ranks of the bureaucracy. By allowing this, Augustus tried to keep the
aristocracy loyal to
him, which they did in fact become.
Augustus also created work programs for discharged veterans and
unemployed men,
often rebuilding temples and civic structures damaged during the civil
war, as well
as erecting new ones. This helped to keep these people loyal.
Here is a good example of that. Click the link to see the Ara Pacis, the
altar
of peace that Augustus sponsored to celebrate the return of order and
stability
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Ara_Pacis_Rom.j
pg
He also created special social welfare programs for the poor, especially
mothers with young children. In this way, he appeared as a caring father
figure
and maintained loyalty and affection among the common people.
He instituted stipends for Roman intellectuals and artists to keep them
favorable
toward him and his government.
In the section The Golden Age of Latin Literature, when you read about
Virgil
and his epic poem, The Aeneid, keep in mind that towards the end of
the work,
Virgil foresees that Rome would enter a time of mortal crisis, only to be
saved
and set upon a course of even greater glory. Obviously, this was an
allusion
to Augustus and his victory.
Something of that vision can be discerned in the famous statue of
Augustus
known as the Augustus of Prima Porta, which is on page 144 of your
text.
The name comes from the place where the statue was found in 1863.
http://hum120.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/augustus20of20prima20po
rta.jpg
Click on the link. You will see Augustus in the persona of the victorious
general
addressing his troops. If you zoom in on the scene represented on his
breastplate,
you will see an interesting exchange. A figure on the right, representing
a Parthian,
is handing a golden eagle standard to a figure representing both
Augustus and Rome.
After the civil war was over, the Parthians, who had defeated a Roman
army at
Carrhae in 53 B.C., returned the captured eagles of the Roman legions
back
to Rome as a gesture of peace. The representation of the scene
signifies how
Augustus had made foreign powers want to be seen favorably by Rome
now
that the empire could exert its power abroad again.
Augustus also reformed and invested new importance in Roman
religious
and social life. He restored the Roman priesthoods and religious
ceremonies
dedicated to the Roman gods. He punished immoral acts that violated
sexual and social codes of behavior.
His social reforms also included the enlargement of a social class
known as the
equestrian order, which was like a middle social group between the
aristocracy
and the vast population of common people who made up the
overwhelming majority
in the empire.
Augustus had to maintain his physical safety and that of his family
against assassiation
or political plots.
To do this, he broke with old Roman tradition and formed a new
permanent
military force called the Praetorian Guard. Initially composed of 9,000
men, it was stationed near Rome and protected Augustus and the
capital against sudden political or military threats. It also exercised
crowd
control during official ceremonies.
(For those interested in Roman political or military history, I recommend
the recent
book by Sandra Bingham titled, The Praetorian Guard: Rome’s Special
Forces.
Bingham reveals that the Praetorians, who in later decades and
centuries
would select emperors, also served in other capacities, such as scouts,
spies and
potentially military assassins.)
He also created a police force and fire brigade to fight crime and protect
against fires
in Rome itself.
With regard to the provinces of the empire, Augustus maintained the
policy from
Republican times. For the most part, that meant religious, social and
local political
autonomy. Peoples could continue to practice their own traditions and
customs,
as long as they were loyal to Rome. Leadership elites who served on
city councils
in the provincial cities or aided Roman administration were awarded
Roman citizenship
and thus could move up in status.
One final note about the provinces. In the year 9 A.D., Rome suffered a
disastrous
military defeat. In previous years, Roman armies had begun penetrating
into the Germanic
lands to the north. Germanic warriors, led by a chieftain names
Arminius, ambushed
and wiped out three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest. That
defeat essentially
reduced Rome’s army by a tenth in a matter of three days. Shocked by
the disaster,
Augustus decided to fix the northern border of the empire at the Rhine
River and Danube
River frontiers, a policy continued by the emperors after him. This was a
pivotal
event in world history.
After that date, it meant that Roman expansion, colonization and cultural
assimilation
into Central Europe stopped. This left an enormous territorial sanctuary
from which
Germanic nations would later launch attacks upon the Roman Empire in
the future.
Near the end of his life and rule, Augustus left a list of his
accomplishments, the Res Gestae,
(things accomplished) that were set up as public memorials all over the
empire.
Read the excerpt on page 145. They give you a good sense of his view
of the impact
that he had. While put on display as part of his promotion of his
reputation, the monuments
were in fact based on the real series of things that he had done to
fundamentally change
the Roman world.
Click the link and you will see a modern replica of it set up in Rome in
the 1930s during
the time of the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini.
http://www.civilization.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Ara-PacisRes-Gestae.jpg
This helped to create the movement in the Senate to recognize
Augustus as a god after
his death, truly beginning the new imperial tradition of revering and
sacrificing to Roman
emperors as god-like figures, a tradition that had its roots in Augustus’
own time with the
recognition of Julius Caesar as a deified or god figure. In this manner,
you could see Roman
emperors now taking on something of the aura of Egyptian pharaohs,
who as you remember,
were seen as living gods during their reigns.
In summary of this section, you could see how and why Augustus is the
pivotal person
in the long span of Roman history and how he created the template for
so much
that was to follow. The span of time that he initiated, the Pax Romana,
meaning
the Roman peace, lasted for about two centuries. It was one of the rare
times in human
recorded history that a state had been able to bring such a large area
under unified
control for so long, a feat matched by its Chinese contemporary, the
Han Dynasty.
The Early Empire (14-180)
This period of time was dominated by three groups of emperors, the
Julio-Claudians,
the descendants of Julius and Octavian Caesar, the Flavians and the
men
known as the Five Good Emperors.
It was during the time of Augustus’ successor, his stepson Tiberius, that
Jesus of Nazareth
engaged in his ministry and was crucified because of his threat to the
authority
of both Jewish religious and Roman political rulers.
In the 1960s, this inscription was found in the state of Israel that was
dedicated
to Tiberius by the Roman governor that had Jesus put to death, Pontius
Pilate.
https://annoyzview.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/pontius-pilateinscrip.jpg
If you look at the second line of the inscription, you will see the remains
of his name. What’s visible is …iusPilatus.
Judea would remain in turmoil for decades until a decisive action in the
60s.
Before then, however, the four emperors of this dynasty would rule.
The key one was Claudius. It was Claudius who initiated the invasion
of Britain and brought it into the Roman Empire for several centuries.
It was also Claudius who decreased the importance of the Senatorial
aristocracy in the Roman government. He created special sections or
departments in the imperial bureaucracy that were led by freedmen,
former slaves identified as having special ability. Doing this centralized
power in the figure of the emperors, as the freedmen were totally
dependent
and loyal to the emperors, not having the sense of status and pedigree
that the aristocrats did.
The system broke down in 68. The unstable figure of Nero triggered a
rebellion among the generals, leading to the year known as the Year
of the Four Emperors. The winner, Vespasian, began the Flavian
Dynasty. It was during Flavian’s time that Judea was suppressed after
a revolt broke out there in 66. Four Roman legions invaded the province
and Jerusalem, the capital was sacked. The treasure and prisoners
brought back to Rome helped to build the Colosseum, the greatest of
the Roman amphitheaters.
Here is the Arch of Titus, Vespasian’s son, who oversaw the military
campaign.
It sits near the Colosseum.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/87/Titus_hh2.jpg
Inside the arch, you can see the sculptural frieze that shows
the spoils taken from Jerusalem, including the menorah taken
from the High Temple, which the Romans destroyed.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Sack_of_jerusale
m.JPG
A model today of what the Temple likely looked like:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Jerusalem_Modell
_BW_2.JPG
The Romans finally eliminated the last of the resistance of the Zealots,
those who
had led the rebellion against Rome, when they besieged the fortress of
Masada
near the Dead Sea.
A view today:
http://yallatoursblog.files.wordpress.com/2014/01/masada14.jpg
If you look in the lower corner of the photograph, you will see the
remains
of one of the Roman Army’s camps. The ramp on the side of the
mountain
was built under the supervision of the army’s engineers. When the
Roman
soldiers finally made it inside, they found that nearly all of the people
had been
killed before the leaders committed suicide.
The point is that this was the length that Rome was prepared to go to
crush
any resistance to its rule.
The period known as the time of the Five Good Emperors is the roughly
four generations
when the Roman Empire reached its height of power.
The greatest extent of territorial expansion was reached during the time
of the emperor Trajan.
Trajan conquered the area known as Dacia, which roughly corresponds
to the country
we know today as Romania. Note the name.
During the time of his successor, Hadrian, is when the empire’s frontiers
were hardened.
It was Hadrian who made the decision that the empire could no longer
continue to expand.
He visited every province during his rule and began the process of the
fortification of the
empire’s borders.
The most famous remaining landmark of this time is to be seen in
Britain. The foundations
of Hadrian’s Wall, which stretched approximately 80 miles across the
neck of Britain,
essentially separated the territories of what today we know as England
and Scotland.
Here is a view of a section that remains:
http://hadrianswallcountry.co.uk/sites/default/files/slideshow/homepagehw-slide-sunset-min.jpg
It was behind the frontier fortifications that the major legionary bases
were located.
Like military bases today, they encouraged the growth of civilian
settlements that grew
up to supply the needs of the soldiers. Here is an artist’s reconstruction
of
what this new urban settlement would have looked like:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/DevaMinervaPlan(
bq).jpg
Many of the great cities of Europe had their origins as Roman fortress
towns.
Examples would include York, Chester, Lincoln, Bonn, Mainz, Cologne,
Vienna and Budapest among others.
Linking these sites was of course the famous Roman road system which
ultimately
included approximately 50,000 miles of major roads.
Something should be said about the Roman roads. They were often
begun by Roman
soldiers, then continued by civilian workers. The roads were built as
elevated
paths, to enable Roman military units and suppliers to move quickly
over long
distances, unhindered by mud or snow. Here is a cross-section of how
they were constructed.
Note their height
above the surrounding ground surface:
https://www.crystalinks.com/RomeRoads2.jpg
The Roman road system and the sea lanes tied the empire together
politically, militarily and economically. Look at this illustration from the
empire’s height.
https://www.historyhit.com/wpcontent/uploads/2018/07/Roman_Empire_c125AD-trade-and-transportroutes.jpg
Note as well how the legionary fortresses were placed along the
northern and eastern frontiers.
To expand upon this, keep in mind that this network connected the
Roman Empire to
a long-established trade network that
crossed
Eurasia to India, China and the Pacific region.
https://cdn.kastatic.org/ka-perseusimages/6d874ee12f4b6e3d05c84d0e2474e7b632706d8e.jpg
Be sure to read carefully the related sections in the textbook that give
much more
supporting detail about
the economy of the early empire.
Roman Culture and Society in the Early Empire.
I won’t cover this section. The pages in the text are relatively
straightforward
and some of this material was also covered in the
Roman City video that you
saw in class. Be sure to read them for more
supporting detail.
Transformation of the Roman World: Crises in the Third Century.
This section requires more commentary. It was a crucial time in the
history of
the empire and in my opinion doesn’t get sufficient attention in the
textbook.
Background: In the time of the last of the Five Good Emperors, Marcus
Aurelius,
something of profound significance began to happen across Eurasia. A
series
of migrations began to occur. These started taking place in the 160s180s
and would last for hundreds of years.
Germanic tribes began to move against the borders of the empire.
There were two
reasons for
this. Think in terms of a pull factor and a
push factor.
The pull factor was the economic allure that the empire had for people
outside
the empire. People outside of the fortified perimeters were aware of the
empire’s
greater material wealth and abundance. People on both sides of the
frontier’s borders
supplied food, clothing, animals and other commodities to the Roman
military garrisons.
Wealth trickled outside of the empire, both through trade and through
reverse migration.
Economic migrants had come into the empire seeking work and then
returned to their
homelands with money and goods that let their kinfolk know what life
was like within
the empire’s provinces. Men had come, especially Germanic tribesmen,
to serve in
the Roman Army. When they were discharged, they sometimes
returned home not
only with goods and treasure, but also with military training and
weapons. All of these
factors began to attract people toward the empire’s lands.
The push factor was the pressure that migrating peoples placed upon
others.
Think of bumper cars at a carnival or amusement park knocking into
each other.
The Xiongnu nomads, against whom the Chinese had built the Great
Wall, started
to migrate again and in the third century penetrated
the wall, helping to
bring down the Han Dynasty. Those that pushed west, in turn pushed
people that
we call the Huns, who lived in what we now call Kazakhstan, across
central Asia,
displacing other peoples. Those peoples then began to hit hard against
the Germanic
tribes living in eastern Europe. Those Germans in turn would then come
up against
the borders of the empire, hoping to find safety and possibly wealth to
sustain themselves.
That is the big picture of what was beginning to happen.
Now, how did the empire respond? First and foremost, the emperors…
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