Grand Canyon University Disease Related Discussion You will build a document in which you compare and connect the module topics across health conditions an

Grand Canyon University Disease Related Discussion You will build a document
in which you compare and connect the module topics across health
conditions and with healthy individuals. Re-read Discussion contributions posted by you and your group members. (a word file is attached to this assignment) with discussion’s posts)Note similarities and differences in what you and others found for
the factors studied both weeks in this module. Why are there
differences? Why are there similarities? Are they explained by the
characteristics of each health condition? What other factors may have
played a role? Draw conclusions from what you’ve read on the boards, and
also include your own thoughts on what may explain your conclusions. Organize your findings by factors (stress, coping, personality,
etc.). Use subtitles to help you stay focused and help your Instructor
grade effectively.Compare and connect
is a higher-order critical thinking skill. Compare and contrast your findings for your assigned health
condition (CANCER) with that of others in your team, based on your collective
findings in the group Discussions.Draw conclusions regarding reasons for similarities and differences among the health conditions.Cite and reference your assigned readings for the class so far, as well as the readings you located to support your statements.You can prepare this Assignment in essay format (with subtitles for each
factor you are comparing) or in table format. Either way, include a
cover page (no abstract) and try to stay within 2–3 pages in length of
text, plus cover and reference pages. You are welcome to create your own
graphs and figures if these facilitate your understanding and ability
to organize the material. Diseases we will be comparing to/from are: Infectious disease (e.g., HIV), Diabetes, No disease (how interpersonal factors relates to an average individual’s health), cardiovascular disease and cancer Stress, Coping, and Health
As indicated in this week’s resources, short-term stress can enhance immune-protection and
immuno-pathological responses that are biologically required during the fight of flight response
(Dhabhar, 2014). However, as the body’s stress response becomes chronic, it eventually
impacts other physiological systems of the body in a negative manner (StressXLLC,
2015). Dhabhar (2014) suggests that chronic stress could increase the vulnerability of certain
types of cancer by suppressing Type 1 cytokines and protective T cells, while increasing
suppressor T cell function. This is due to the deregulation of the circadian cortisol rhythm and
increased production of stress hormones that affect numerous parts of the body (Dhabhar,
2014). Chronic stress last for extended periods of the day over the course of weeks or months
(Dhabhar, 2014). Effects of stress may include include fatigue, pain, muscle tension,
constipation, diarrhea, headaches, insomnia, colds and infection (StressXLLC, 2015).
Studies have indicated that disease-related stress across numerous cancer diagnosis types
including breast, colorectal, prostate and lymphoma is related to psychosocial adjustment and
quality of life (Rush & Sharma, 2017). For instance, Harris et. al (2017) found that ongoing
chronic stress and episodic stress occurring shortly after breast cancer diagnosis is correlated
with bothersome physical symptoms (e.g. pain, fatigue) during and subsequently, after cancer
treatment. Additionally, it was found that extenuating cancer-related factors that are not directly
associated with health can also cause stress among patients. Sharp and Timmons (2016) evaluate
how factors such as pre-diagnosis employment status, whether they have dependents, medical
card or insurance availability, pre-diagnosis household income and financial stress, and cancer
related medical costs contribute to stress and financial strain. Evidence suggests that financial
hardship is associated with decreased psychological wellbeing and quality of life and may even
delay cancer treatment (Sharp & Timmons, 2016).
As indicated above, stress can disrupt immune functioning in cancer patients; thus numerous
research studies are aimed at establishing effective coping strategies. Evidence suggests that
effective coping responses to stress influences cortisol levels (Carver & Vargas, 2011). Two
coping strategies that have been utilized with cancer patients are Mindfulness-based stress
reduction (MBSR) and Cognitive Behavior Stress Management (CBSM). MBSR techniques
originate from Buddhist practices and focuses on meditation components (Rush & Sharma,
2017). Kabat-Zinn, Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Healthcare, and Society at the
University of Massachusetts Medical School, explains mindfulness as an intentional awareness
of the present moment, with an attitude of acceptance and openness (Rush & Sharma, 2017).
Practices include body scanning, meditational breathing, and body movement techniques from
hatha yoga (Rush & Sharma, 2017). The goal is to for individuals to experience thoughts in a
subjective and transient manner (Rush & Sharma). Studies reveal that mindfulness have been
successful in helping patients cope with chronic pain, fatigue, stress reduction, forms of cancer,
heart disease, type-2 diabetes, psoriasis, and insomnia (Rush & Sharma, 2017). MBSR has
shown positive effects on mood and symptoms of stress with cancer patients immediately and 6
months after completing MBSR training (Rush & Sharma, 2017). Rush and Sharma conducted a
review of 13 interventions of MBSR from studies published from October 2009 to November
2015 and noted there were positive psychological or physiological outcomes in reducing
stress.
Cognitive Behavior Stress Management (CBSM) addresses ways to improve the following five
areas: coping skills, emotional response, awareness of stress response, anxiety reduction and
cognitive restructuring (Shams & Al-Azri, 2019). By providing intervention that enhances
relaxation skills, cognitive appraisal, and social support, CBSM has proven effective in
decreasing depression, anxiety and stressful thoughts among patients with breast cancer (Shams
& Al-Azri, 2019). Furthermore group-based CBSM decreases overall stress level and regulates
cortisol output, thereby supporting cellular immune functioning in patients (Shams & Al-Azri,
2019). Shams and Al-Azri (2019) conducted a pilot study among Omani women to determine
the effectiveness of CBSM in Arabic cultures in comparison to western cultures. Due to cultural
differences, the CBSM program was customized to coincide with Arabic culture (Shams & AlAzri, 2019). The study revealed that the program was most effective for women who exhibited
severe levels of baseline anxiety (Shams and Al-Azri, 2019).
These two coping strategies encourages patients to adopt an emotion-focused model of illness
verses a problem-based model (Carver & Vargas, 2011). As Carver and Vargas (2011) illustrate,
this frame of thought is concerned with emotion regulation instead of dwelling on the stressor
itself (“mind over matter”).
One interesting point regarding mindfulness based techniques mentioned in the article by Rush
and Sharma (2017) is the extensive training time, especially considering the fatigue and chemo
schedule of cancer patients. However, mindfulness-based apps are now available and can be
downloaded to phones, tablets or computers. I have previously used the app, Headspace, when I
encountered insomnia last year. However, since reading the information this week, I have
implemented the use of the app again to help me alleviate stress that has become somewhat
chronic.
References:
Carver, C. S., & Vargas, S. (2011). Stress, coping and health. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), The
Oxford handbook of health psychology (pp. 162-188), New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.
Dhabhar, F. S. (2014). Effects of stress on immune function: The good, the bad, and the
beautiful. Immunologic Research, 58(2-3), 193-210. Doi: 10.1007/s12026-014-8517-0.
Harris, L. N., Bauer, M. R., Wiley, J. F, Hammen, C., Krull, J. L., Crespi, C. M., Weihs, K. L., &
Stanton, A. L. (2017). Chronic and episodic stress predict physical symptom bother
following breast cancer diagnosis. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 40(1), 875-885. Doi:
10.1007/s10865-017-9855-x
Rush, S. E., & Sharma, M., (2017). Mindfulness-based stress reduction as a stress management
intervention for cancer care: A systematic review. Journal of Evidence-Based
Complementary & Alternative Medicine 22(2), 347-359. Doi: 10.1177/215658721661467
Shams, N., & Al-Azri, M. (2019). The effect of cognitive behavior stress management program
on the distress, coping skills, and the social support of Omani women with breast cancer:
A pilot study. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and
Sciences, 55(1), 170-187. Retrieved from
https://asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/4074/1707
StressXLLC. (2015, January 9), Physiology of stress [Video file]. Retrieved from

TED. (2017, March). How to tame your wandering mind: Amishi Jha [Video file]. Retrieved
from https://www.ted.com/talks/amishi_jha_how_to_tame_your_wandering_mind
Stress and Infectious Diseases
Explain the relationship between your assigned health condition and stress. Is there
extensive research on this, or is this a new area of inquiry? What are its major and most
recent conclusions in terms of causes and consequences?
Stepanikova et al. (2019) explains that during pregnancy if the mother experiences
stressors, this can be transferred to the baby in utero, which is linked to adverse health and
infectious diseases later in childhood. The infectious diseases looked at for children include strep
throat, laryngitis, cold sores, ear infection, eye infection, bronchitis/lung infection flu/flu-like
infections and cold sores (Stepanikova et al., 2019). Stepanikova et al. (2019) report that there is
a connection between perinatal stress and increased susceptibility to infectious diseases in
children throughout childhood most significantly between ages 7-11 years, also extending
beyond this age. Children born from holocaust survivors or other significant adverse life events
experience lifetime risk of anxiety, PTSD, depression, insulin resistance, overall poor mental
health and reduced quality of life compared to others of the same age (Stepanikova et al., 2019).
When reviewing psychosocial stressors (family death or divorce), this also indicated an increase
of infectious diseases in childhood (Stepanikova et al., 2019).
Avitsur, Levy, Goren, and Grinshpahet (2015) indicate that predictable, mild, short-term
stress during pregnancy can benefit the baby and even improve coping with future stressors.
Avitsur et al. (2015) confirm that psychosocial stressors during pregnancy create long-lasting
changes to the brain in the baby including, changes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis,
changes in the epigenetic pathways, vulnerability to diseases, and infection during pregnancy.
Maternal deprivation or extensive or extreme stress can reprogram the neuroendocrine,
metabolic, behavioral changes, and immune system development thus minimizing the child’s
ability to cope with infectious disease (Avitsur et al., 2015). Avitsur et al. (2015) believe that the
perinatal time or pregnancy is crucial for the baby due to the neuroplasticity of the brain during
this time and the sensitivity to remodeling from environmental factors.
Stress and HIV
Identify effective coping mechanisms for individuals with your assigned health condition.
At what point and for whom do these coping strategies/styles work and not work?
Rodkjaer et al. (2014) explore individuals with HIV, and they determined that those who
struggled less with depression were those who told someone, and they had high coping selfefficacy. Those who did not tell anyone struggled with depression significantly more and had a
low coping self-efficacy (Rodkjaer et al., 2014). Rodkjaer et al. (2014) concluded that increasing
the coping self-efficacy in those with infectious disease HIV could help them with handling the
demands of living with this disease, minimize depression, and increase disclosure of the disease.
Tang et al. (2018) discuss that those with HIV have a high rate of suicide in comparison
to the general population. Tang et al. (2018) reported that depression had a direct and significant
impact on suicidal ideation. Possessing skills of emotion-focused coping, problem-focused
coping, and social support have a direct and significant relationship on minimizing depression
and its link to suicidal ideation. In conclusion, Tang et al. (2018) suggest that screening for
depression, providing psychological services, and strengthening social support will significantly
minimize suicide. Ichikura, Yamashita, Sugimoto, Kishimoto, and Matsushima (2017) have
determined that possessing a problem-focused coping will minimize depression in patients with
diseases. Patients that utilize dependent coping by using drinking or alcohol in unhealthy coping
strategies have the most risk of depression (Ichikura et al., 2017). Ichikura et al. (2017)
determined that the majority of their patients used a dependent coping style, and they conclude
that interventions should be put in place to assist these clients by providing alternative coping
strategies.
Crane, Searle, Kangas, & Nwiran, (2018) report that stressors can build resilience in
cases where the individual utilizes self-reflection on an ongoing basis to include, developing
resilient beliefs, coping resources, and using emotional and coping regulatory repertoire.
Stressors or adversity provide opportunities to grow in resilience if adaptive self-reflective
practices are utilized. Avitsur et al. (2015) point out that in some cases, mild and short-term
stress during pregnancy can be adaptive. Stress can be helpful by utilizing healthy coping
strategies to increase developing long-term adversity.
While in utero babies are susceptible to stressors experienced by the mom. Average
amounts of expected stress could benefit the child later, but significant life stressors or
malnourishment could impact the child up till age 11 by increasing the risk of childhood
infectious diseases. Huge stressors of the pregnant mother could impact the child for a lifetime
by increasing the risk of infectious diseases, immune system disorders, and mental health
struggles. Individuals who utilize healthy coping mechanisms such as self-reflection, seeking
supports, problem-focused coping, or emotional focused coping minimize their risk to depression
and infectious diseases. Individuals who cope alone, rely on drugs or alcohol, do not reflect, do
not focus on problem-solving will have increased risks of infectious disease and depression.
References:
Avitsur, R., Levy, S., Goren, N., & Grinshpahet, R. (2015). Early adversity, immunity and
infectious disease. The International Journal on Biology and Stress, 18(3), 289-296.
doi:10.3109/10253890.2015.1017464
Crane, M. F., Searle, B. J., Kangas, M., & Nwiran, Y. (2018). How resilience is strengthened by
exposure to stressors: The systematic self-reflection model of resilience strengthening. Anxiety,
Stress, & Coping: An International Journal, 32(1), 1-17. doi:10.1080/10615806.2018.1506640
Ichikura, K., Yamashita, A., Sugimoto, T., Kishimoto, S., & Matsushima, E. (2017). Patterns of
stress coping and depression among patients with head and neck cancer: A Japanese crosssectional study. Psycho-Oncology. 27, 556-562. doi:10.1002/pon.4549
Rodkjaer, L., Chesney, M. A., Lomborg, K., Ostergaard, L., Laursen, T., & Sodemann, M.
(2014). HIV-infected individuals with high coping self-efficacy are less likely to report
depressive symptoms: A cross-sectional study from Denmark. International Journal of Infectious
Diseases, 22, 67-72. doi:10:1016/j.ijid.2013.12.008
Stepanikova, I., Baker, E., Oats, G., Acharya, S., Uddin, J., Thon, V., Svancara, J., & Kukla, L.
(2019). Perinatal maternal stress and susceptibility to infectious diseases in later childhood: An
early life programming perspective. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied,
153(1), 67-88. doi:10.1080/00223980.2018.1483311
Tang, X., Wang, H. Y., Wang, M., Ren, X. H., Jiang, F. R., & Li, J. L. (2018). Structural
equation model analysis of social support, coping strategies, depression and suicidal ideation
among people living with HIV/AIDS in Changsha, China. Dove Press Journal: Neuropsychiatric
Disease and Treatment, 14, 2923-2930. doi:10.2147/NDT.S177460
No Health Condition Diagnosed – Stress and Average Individuals
In this week’s discussion, I was assigned to examine how stress affects average
individuals with no diagnosed health conditions. Dhabhar (n.d.) defines stress as a group of
events, involving a stimulus, which triggers a reaction in the brain, which then initiates
physiological fight-or-flight systems in the body acting as the stress response. Stress often is
correlated as a negative reaction, though Dhabhar (n.d.) reports short-term stress can produce a
modulation of immune cell distribution within the body, which can enhance and activate the
immune system. On the other hand, long-term stress can intensify pro-inflammatory and
autoimmune diseases. Smith, Dijkstra, Gordon, Romero, and Thomas (2019) also investigated
the effects of stress when encoding recalling memories from videos presented to older adults.
When adults are experiencing stress when learning new information, the adults were not able to
encode new information as well under stress as they were without stress. However, the
researchers were unable to identify any errors of these adults retrieving information when
presented with an increase in stress levels. (Smith et al., 2019). This information may be relevant
for an adult learning of a new diagnosis he or she may possess, as they may not be able to encode
the new information about their disease from their doctor if they are experiencing a certain level
of stress.
Carver and Vargas (2011) defined coping as the efforts a person utilizes to deal in a
manner with a threatening or harmful situations, in an attempt to remove the threat it may impact
on a person. As Carver and Vargas (2011) demonstrate, coping occurs after the event has taken
place, as stress has been induced, and after emotional distress has been experienced, all as a way
to lessen the severity of the outcome of an immune disruption of disease outcome. Tandon,
Dariotis, Tucker, and Sonenstein (2013) investigated the role of coping strategies in younger
individuals as a way to mitigate stressful events. What they found was that learning a new skill is
a coping skill and confidence booster in younger individuals to combat stressful situations. Aside
from learning the new skill as an experience and a coping skill for that particular situation,
perhaps it may also teach the younger individual how to use this same skill in stressful situations
later in life to reduce the negative effects of stress.
In summary, stress is the physiological response to events and situations that take place
around us in our daily lives. Coping skills are interventions we may utilize to reduce the effects
of stress. It is common for every individual to experience stress, but it is the responsibility of the
individual to utilize his or her coping skills to lessen the effects of stress.
References
Carver, C.X., & Vargas, S. (2011). Stress, coping and health. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), The
Oxford handbook of health psychology (pp.162-188). New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.
Dhabhar, F. S. (n.d.). Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the
beautiful. Immunologic Research, 58(2–3), 193–210.
Smith, A. M., Dijkstra, K., Gordon, L. T., Romero, L. M., & Thomas, A. K. (2019). An
investigation into the impact of acute stress on encoding in older adults. Aging,
Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 26(5), 749–766.
Tandon, S. D., Dariotis, J. K., Tucker, M. G., & Sonenstein, F. L. (2013). Coping, stress, and
social support associations with internalizing and externalizing behavior among urban
adolescents and young adults: Revelations from a cluster analysis. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 52(5), 627–633.
Cardiovascular Disease
The way you handle stress matters. If you’re often stressed, and you don’t have good ways
to manage it, you are more likely to have comorbidities that lead to cardiovascular disease such
as: chest pain, high blood pressure, or irregular heartbeats (Vale, 2005). Psychological stress is
associated with cardiovascular diseases to the extent that cardiovascular diseases are among the
most important group of psychosomatic diseases (Golbidi, Frisbee, Laher, (2015). Golbidi,
Frisbee, and Laher (2015) suggest stress can be defined as a subjective perception of an adverse
environmental change. These changes usually lead to stress responses allowing for adaptation to
the new condition. The authors contend there is a longstanding association between stress and
cardiovascular disease despite a large ambiguity about the underlying mechanisms. In addition to
traditional cardiovascular risk factors (hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, etc.), Gullette et
al., (1997) report mental stress also plays a major role. In a study by Gullette et al., (1997)
mental stresses, which were defined as feelings of tension, frustration, and sadness, were found
to double the risk of myocardial ischemia. Dimsdale (2008) defines the nature of stress in context
of behaviors. Cardiovascular effects are linked to negative emotions that increase hormones that
effect cardiovascular response in an aberrant manner. Anger, anxiety are some everyday
examples of how negative emotions are displayed in our outward behaviors, but also effect the
heart. As one of the most common patient complaints, st…
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