American Principle of Population Overtime Thomas Malthus Essay In general, as discussed by the principle of population, overtime, resources grow. But, the

American Principle of Population Overtime Thomas Malthus Essay In general, as discussed by the principle of population, overtime, resources grow. But, the problem he finds is that human had the tendency to use abundant resources to regenerate themselves, instead of using the abundant resource to increase their standard of living. Eventually, resources grow with the people’s standard of living, but people will generate themselves faster than the rate at which the resource grow. The lower of standard of living eventually because of too much population. In the conclusion, society will geminate the seed of destruction of their own. ———————————————————————————————————————————————————————— you may start the critic by providing with a contradictory logic of theories? for example:Lack of contraception, and the woman’s status. Empirical evidence: this is some ideas about wiring the assessment: assess women’s education, and role of women’s education played in percentage of female’s employment in labour force by assessing statistically publicly available data, to critic the principle of population. Also, for this part, the statistical data is essential, you may also need to include some charts or econometrics to briefly explain and analyse. Plz bid on this work unless you are able to do it, I also upload a sample essay in which the structure is similar to this one. Plz have a look. ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on China’s efforts to alleviate absolute poverty by 2030. While absolute
poverty is measured in terms of the internationally recognized poverty line of $1.25 a dollar,
other socioeconomic factors, and social injustices are also used as determinants of poverty.
China lifted more than 850 million people from absolute poverty within four decades ending
in 2011. This translated to a reduction from 88% to 1.85%, which was also more than 70% of
the total global population that was lifted from poverty during the same period. China has been
reducing inequality and extreme poverty by formulating precisely targeted poverty alleviation
policy. It has also been providing better education, and health facilities to the people to cement
the results of poverty eradication. China is currently in the right direction to eliminate extreme
poverty by the year 2030.
Introduction
Poverty is one of the most prevalent socioeconomic issues in the world. While many
nations have been striving to alleviate poverty among their citizens, the international
community has also been focusing its efforts on this and other socioeconomic problems. For
instance, the United Nations prioritizes on poverty eradication by designating it the leading
millennium development goal. While the United Nations targets to alleviate extreme poverty
by 2030, China’s also making efforts to achieve the purpose of the elimination of absolute
poverty by 2030 (Li, Su & Liu, 2016). While a section of society agrees with the Chinese
government on its targets, others feel that this attempt may be a little farfetched for a nation
with a population of close to 1.4 billion. In a report by the World Bank (2019), the agency
ranked China as the leading nation in terms of commitment to poverty eradication and mainly
due to the efforts that the country has achieved during the last three decades. It is possible to
forecast whether China will achieve its purpose by 2030 based on its historical path, current
results, and future commitment of the nation. This purpose of this paper is to evaluate whether
or not China can alleviate extreme poverty by 2030 by attempting to link the theoretical
perspective of the problem with the nation’s effort and past success.
Theoretical literature review
Poverty is rated as the most significant socioeconomic problem in the world. Unlike the
common misperception that the problem affects only the less developed nations, research
shows that this is a common issue in both developed and developing countries. Based on data
published by Perkins, Lindauer, Radelet & Block (2013), both developed and developing
nations in the world is still a long way to the alleviation of poverty. The same problem still
affects a section of Chinese citizens. Recent statistics show that 3.1%, or an equivalent of 36
million Chinese living in rural areas, were living in absolute poverty as defined by the United
Nations. At the national level, only 1.85% of the Chinese population lived below the extreme
poverty line by 2013. About 80% of the sparse population in China reside in the countryside
(Weiping, 2018). Therefore, to eradicate poverty, China may need to escalate its efforts to
ensure that more resources will be allocated to the poverty-stricken rural areas and elevates the
impoverished individuals above the internationally recognized poverty line.
The Chinese government has been trying to undertake various reforms for the past 40 years
to eradicate poverty in the country. The reforms began in the early 1980s when President Deng
Xiaoping carried out various economic reforms. The primary purpose was to run China as a
modern economic system rather than one that was run by the state. Before the state would
control most of the activities but instead the citizens were given the freedom to choose their
actions?Zou, W., Zhang, F., Zhuang, Z., & Song, H., 2008?.The political reform has been
the main driving force of the continuous growth of the Chinese economy. However, as a
developing country, there were a large number of people who are under the poverty line,
especially in rural areas, and most of them were absolute poor in the early stage of reform (Liu,
Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, Y., 2017).
Thus, the government implemented the pro-poor policies that aim to increase the income of the
poor people and to support agriculture, rural construction, economic development, and poverty
reduction in the poverty-stricken areas.
Moreover, the Chinese government set a national standard for poverty-stricken counties
(per capita income is less than 400 RMB). Based on the designated impoverished counties, the
central government has carried out a series of large-scale, development-oriented poverty
alleviation programs. For example, the State Council initiated the poverty reduction program
“Work for Food,” which provides employment opportunities for the impoverished rural surplus
labors by increasing the investment on the construction of infrastructure, such as building rural
roads. Meanwhile, the central government also set up the poverty alleviation fund to support
the local development of the impoverished areas. For more information, the poverty alleviation
fund provides subsidized loans to those poverty-stricken households who have activities in
industry or agriculture. It is remarkable that the reforms in China significantly reduce the
amount of poverty-stricken population by enhancing the income of poor people (World Bank.
2009).
Significantly, the inequality of income distribution can negatively affect the reduction of
the poverty population (Yu, L., & Li, X., 2015). Besides, poverty is also measured by the state,
quality, and standard of life. For a nation to eradicate poverty, it has to resolve other factors
that contribute to poverty. According to Qin & Chong (2018), some of the most significant
factors include equal access to housing, health, education, food security, and adequate clean
water. These factors affect the quality of life and the expenses that people may incur to support
themselves. For instance, in a nation where people do not have equal access to health care and
education, the cost of living is more likely to rise and even causing poverty. People living in
poverty may require well above the dollar value that defines the poverty line to support their
essential lives. Perkins et al. (2013) also insist that a nation should address social injustices
such as income and education inequality, promote equitable distribution of resources.
Therefore, society needs to ensure that it can progress in all these areas as a way of alleviating
absolute poverty.
Empirical Literature Review
China has made tremendous achievements in its efforts to alleviate poverty. While China’s
popular program to reduce poverty began in the early 1980s, the nation was able to 850 million
people from the $1.9 a day poverty line and 730 million people from its national poverty line
by 2013 (Perkins et al., 2013; Weiping et al., 2018). This has been the most significant
achievement throughout the world. By the measure of extreme absolute poverty, barely 1% of
the Chinese population lived below extreme or absolute poverty as of 2014 (See Appendix A).
Besides, China has outperformed every other nation in its efforts to alleviate extreme poverty.
As illustrated by Weiping (2018), the percentage of the Chinese population living below $1.9
a day in 2011 dollars declined from 88.32% in 1981 to 1.85% in 2013. This drop represented
the elevation of 853 million Chinese from more than 877 million people living in poverty in
1981 to just 25 million in 2013 (See Appendix B). This was a tremendous achievement by the
nation. As explained by Yuan (2019), about 70% of all the people who were lifted from poverty
during the four decades were Chinese. This means that the nation outperformed the entire world
by far. To bring it into a better perspective, 33% of the rest of Southeast Asia lived below $1.25
a day, while 22% of the world suffered the same fate (See Appendix C).
However, according to the inverted-U theory, as the economy grows, the inequality will
initially grow as well (shown in Appendix D). Although researches have been indicated that
economic growth is strongly related to reducing poverty, only economic growth is not
sufficient to eliminate poverty; the income inequality can, to some extent, offset the positive
effect of income growth on the reduction of poverty(Zaman, K., Ikram, W., & Shah, I. A.,
2010). Equality is of importance by the way that it can convert economic growth into the
elimination of poverty. In the 21st century, the issue of poverty in China has been recognized
as a regional problem: the poorness is not any longer widespread across China and has mainly
been concentrated in the isolated, rural areas. As the inequality increases across China, the rural
poorness gap is more widened, and the seriousness of the inner difference among the rural
residents is increased; the poor individuals cannot be benefited, and, the wealthier receive more
financial aid than the poor(Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, Y., 2017).
Specifically, Yu, L., & Li, X. (2015) uses national data includes per capita net income of
rural individuals from China Statistical Yearbook, rural Gini coefficient that derived from
China Agricultural Yearbook and the incidence of rural poverty from China Rural poverty
Monitoring Report to analyse the elasticity of poverty to income and the elasticity of poverty
to the distribution of income. The data is only based on the nine years from 2000 to 2008. This
is because the Chinese government has continuously updating and modifying the quality of the
national poverty line. As a result, it is challenging to gain consistent official data about the
incidence of poverty after 2008. By investigating the elasticity, not only the relation between
the variables, but also the sensitivity of the rate of poverty concerning the variation in the
economic growth and the distribution of income can be analyzed. Meanwhile, the model can
be established as:
Where, in the model, Hit indicates the incidence of poverty of i province at t year. Moreover,
GINIit indicates represents the Gini coefficient?value of Gini coefficient falls into the range
from 0 to 1, with 0 for total income equality and 1 for total income inequality? of i province
at t year, and INCit refers to the rural per capita net income of I province at t year. The major
variables this model is estimating are ?1 and ?2. Specifically, ?1 is the elasticity of income
growth with respect to poverty. Also, ?2 is the elasticity of the distribution of income with
respect to poverty.
The results of the regression clearly illustrate that ?1 equals to -2.42 and ?2 equals to 1.32.
This is as to say, if the per capita income increases by one percent, the incidence of poverty
will be decreased by 2.42 percent; the one percent increase in Gini coefficient will result in the
rate of poverty increased by 1.32 percent. More importantly, by calculating the marginal rate
of substitution of the two elasticities (?1/ ?2), the result shows that the incremental 0.55 percent
in per capita net income is required to offset the increase in the incidence of poverty caused by
the one percent increase in Gini coefficient(see Appendix E)(Yu, L., & Li, X., 2015).
Furthermore, as shown in Appendix E, the poor group of farmers receives less government
transfer payments than non-poor farmers. This is as to say, because of the inequality of income
distribution, the poor are benefited less than the wealthy families.
In addition, public services are critical to reducing poverty. The essential health care
system in China comprises three fundamental elements, which are Basic Health Insurance for
Urban Employees, Basic Health Insurance for Urban Residents, and New Rural Cooperative
Medical System (Appendix F). Besides, there is another insurance, Critical Illness Insurance,
which is financially supported by social pooling and the government to provide extra financial
aid to those patients who suffer from the extreme cost of medical services. It is found that
according to the current health care system, the medical care coverage is based on whether the
patient is from an urban area or rural area, and, whether the patient is employed or unemployed.
Due to the unequal access to the health care for urban and rural individuals, rural residents are
more likely to be exposed to the risk of financial burden in the face of being illness (Wu, D.,
Yu, F., & Nie, W., 2018). For people who live in the countryside, it is not uncommon that rural
household can be dragged into poverty because of the substantial amount of medical expenses,
which is becoming an increasingly severe issue. According to research published in Lancet in
the year of 2012, around 12.9% of total families in China suffer from catastrophic health
expenses (Meng, Q. et al., 2012).
Meanwhile, a survey shows that approximately 40% of interviewees expressed that the
reason why they stay in poverty is the expense of hospitalization (World Health Organization,
2017). It is meaningful to mention that the widely recognized (particularly by WHO) threshold
of the catastrophic health expenditure is 40% of the income after necessary living expenses. In
another word, 40% of the family income, after the deduction of the cost of food required, is
allocated to cover the expenditure of health care may primarily affect other compulsory
payment and even cause poverty (Wu, D., Yu, F., & Nie, W., 2018).
The study, as an example, shows that the average income for low-income families in rural
places in China is around 15,717 RMB per year; there is approximately 7,380 RMB remaining
after the deduction of the necessary living expense. In accordance with the threshold of
catastrophic health expenditure, the out-of-pocket cost is about 2900 RMB, which is still
substantially lower than the New Rural Cooperative Medical System deductible. Therefore,
although the New Rural Cooperative Medical System can cover the patients, it is still
unavoidable for those low-income families to suffer from the substantial financial cost of
medical services (Wu, D., Yu, F., & Nie, W.,2018). Also, another study shows that in the
province of Anhui in China, while the poorest 20% households receive 3.4% of the total
government health care, the wealthiest 20% population earns more than 50% of the health care
subsidies (Wang, L. et al., 2016). Therefore, the inequality of income distribution and unequal
access to public services can negatively impact the effect of poverty alleviation.
Analysis and policy implications
China’s economy has been the most stable in the world during the 21st century (Qu, 2017),
and, China is expected to achieve continued growth and economic stability for the rest of the
decade (Yang, L., 2013). Also, China has sealed many of the problems that have been
frustrating other nations in their efforts to alleviate extreme poverty, for instance, by providing
domestic investment to empower the impoverished individuals financially (Qu, 2017).
It is clear that China has made a high achievement in poverty eradication. However, an
article by the Wu and He (2018) reported that an obsession on income masks other problems;
the nation has been facing some challenges including high recidivism rate of poverty, and
income and public services inequality across different regions in China. For example, there is
60% recidivism in the province of Si Chuan, indicating that 60% of the impoverished people
can be lifted out of poverty then drop back to poverty again. It is not only crucial that
impoverished individuals can be elevated from poverty, but also maintaining above poverty
(Yang, Z., 2019).
Currently, the government of China has been aligning its efforts to precisely target the single
household to eliminate extreme poverty, instead of focusing on geographic regions (Qu,
T.,2017). The government has established a database which includes 30 million poor persons,
the places they live, and the problems they are facing. The government will offer both financial
and technological assistance according to the database. For example, according to the database,
there are 44 million children who are under 15 years old live in the poverty areas. Among those
children, the boys who are 13 years old is just as high as the boys who are ten years old in the
city because of malnutrition. The central government implemented the plan that aims to
enhance the nutrition level of the students who are receiving compulsory education in rural
areas since 2011; around 16 million RMB annually is provided to pilot counties, benefiting
more than 32 million students in the countryside. Significantly, the data derived from the
follow-up survey for four consecutive years shows that the average height and the average
weight of the rural students who receive the plan are increased by 1.2 cm to 1.4 cm and 0.7 kg
to 0.8 kg, respectively, which is higher than the average growth rate of rural students in
China(Ministry of Education, 2017).
Targeted poverty eradication programs have proved the most beneficial in China. The
nation has been allocating a substantial amount of its GDP to poverty eradication to ensure that
the affected regions and people are raised from poverty. Approximately 70 million Chinese
were elevated from poverty between 2012 and 2017, an indication that an average of 26 people
was being upgraded from poverty every minute during the five years (Yuan, 2019).
Significantly, while the nation spent the only RMB 406.7 billion for 12 years between 1998
and 2010, the funds allocated for poverty eradication was increased to RMB 628.2 billion for
the period between 2014 and 2016 (Yang, 2019). Notably, China currently is also solving the
issue of housing, education inequality, health, and safety of its people promptly to ensure that
they do not jeopardize its poverty eradication efforts (Yuyao, L. & Jingjie, L.,2018).
At last, by extrapolating graphs and data provided by China’s National Bureau of Statistics,
it is clear that the steady increase in funds allocated for poverty eradication and the resultant
seamless reduction in the number of poor people will ultimately lead to poverty eradication
within the ten years (See Appendix H). This indicates that the nation is headed in the right
direction. From the above analysis, it is possible that China will accomplish its poverty
eradication goals by 2030.
Conclusion
In summary, China has prioritized on poverty eradication in many of its policies. The nation
has succeeded tremendously as compared to the rest of the world. There is no doubt that China
will meet its goals by 2030. The country has focused on empowering the people and local
governments by providing them with additional funds as a way of enabling them. Based on
recent trends, it is time that China shifted its targets to eradicate income poverty to other social
economic factors, such as health, education, as a way of adjusting its poverty eradication efforts
with the current situation. The government should further implement other policies to raise
investment and seal any loopholes that could jeopardize its efforts to eradicate poverty.
Reference list
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