Human Development Global Forces and Local Diversity in Chicago Paper This is your essay question. It summarizes what you learned in this course. Use APA fo

Human Development Global Forces and Local Diversity in Chicago Paper This is your essay question. It summarizes what you learned in this course. Use APA format.

Essay Question

Through GEO class materials to write an essay about global forces and local diversity in Chicago. Chicago, on Lake Michigan in Illinois, is among the largest cities in the U.S. What are FOUR of the most important concepts you learned in the class that best help you better understand this place or region? Why is this place and these concepts important to you? How do these concepts help you understand the place? How are the global processes connected to this local place?

Key concepts – Choose Four of Them (Readings are in the files)

Among the key concepts geographers use to understand global patterns of human

activity and the processes that operate among people and places are:

diffusion, population distribution & dynamics

ethnicity

globalization

push/pull factors

Human Development Index

industrialization

post industrialization

urban structure

gentrification

primary, secondary, and tertiary economic activities 10
Development
Learning Outcomes
After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to:
Learning Outcome 10.1.1:
Understand the Human Development Index.
Learning Outcome 10.1.2:
Identify the HDI standard of living factor.
Learning Outcome 10.1.3:
Identify the HDI education factors.
Learning Outcome 10.1.4:
Identify the HDI health factors.
Learning Outcome 10.2.1:
Describe the U.N.’s measures of inequality.
Learning Outcome 10.2.2:
Describe the U.N.’s measures of gender inequality.
Learning Outcome 10.2.3:
Describe empowerment-related components of gender inequality.
Learning Outcome 10.2.4:
Describe reproductive health elements of the GII.
Learning Outcome 10.2.5:
Compare HDI and GII for selected countries.
Learning Outcome 10.3.1:
Summarize the two paths to development.
Learning Outcome 10.3.2:
Analyze reasons for the triumph of the international trade approach to
development.
Learning Outcome 10.3.3:
Identify the main sources of financing development.
Learning Outcome 10.3.4:
Explain alternate strategies for coping with economic downturns.
Learning Outcome 10.4.1:
Explain principles of fair trade.
Learning Outcome 10.4.2:
Describe ways in which differences in development have narrowed or
increased.
Chapter Outline
Key Issue 1: Why Does Development Vary among Countries?
Countries can be categorized according to their level of development, which is the process of improving the
conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology. The development process is
continuous, involving never-ending actions to perpetually improve the health and prosperity of the people.
180
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 10: Development
Introducing Development Countries may be divided into two groups according to their level of
development:
•
A developed country, also known as a more developed country (MDC) and referred to by the
U.N. as a very high developed country, has progressed further along the development continuum.
•
A developing country, also frequently called a less developed country (LDC), has made some
progress toward development, though less than the developed countries.
The U.N. classifies developing countries into high, medium, and low developing categories.
Human Development Index The United Nations compares levels of development on an index called the
Human Development Index (HDI). The U.N. has computed HDIs for countries annually since 1980.
The highest HDI possible is 1.0, or 100 percent. The HDI considers development to be a function of three
factors: a decent standard of living, a long and healthy life, and access to knowledge. Each country gets a
score of these three factors, which are then combined into an overall HDI.
Development Regions The world is divided by geographers into two developed regions and seven
developing regions. Each region has an overall HDI score. The two regions with the lowest HDI scores
are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Some notable exceptions are present in this division of regions,
with three other distinctive areas apparent. Japan and South Korea are classified separately rather than
included with the rest of East Asia, as their level of development is much higher than that of their
neighbors. In the South Pacific, Australia and New Zealand are developed, while the area’s other
countries are developing. Due to limited development both under and following communism, the U.N.
reclassified Russia from a developed country to a high developing country.
A Decent Standard of Living Accumulating enough wealth for a decent standard of living is essential to
development. Geographers have identified ways in which people generate and spend their wealth
differently in developed countries compared to those in developing countries.
Income The U.N. measures the standard of living in countries through an index called annual gross
national income per capita at purchasing power parity. The gross national income (GNI) is the value of
the output of goods and services produced in a country in a year, including money that leaves and enters
the country. The purchasing power parity (PPP) is an adjustment made to the GNI to account for
differences among countries in the cost of goods. By dividing the GNI by the total population, it is
possible to measure the contribution made by the average individual towards generating a country’s
wealth in a year. Per capita GNI measures the average (mean) wealth, not the distribution of wealth. Other
studies refer to gross domestic product (GDP), which is also the value of the output of goods and
services produced in a country in a year. The GDP does not account for money that leaves or enters the
country. Per capita GNI (or any other single indicator) cannot measure perfectly the level of a country’s
development.
Economic Structure Jobs fall into three categories. Primary sector jobs include activities extracting
materials from the Earth through agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry. Secondary sector jobs
process, transform, and assemble raw materials into manufactured products. Tertiary sector jobs involve
181
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography
the provision of goods and services to people in exchange for payment. The share of GNI accounted for
by the primary and secondary sector has decreased dramatically in the last century in most developed
countries. The tertiary sector accounts for the greatest share of the GNI in developed countries.
Productivity Workers in developed countries are more productive than those in developing countries.
The term productivity means the value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to
make it. The value added in manufacturing is the gross value of the product minus the raw materials and
energy. Productivity can be measured by the value added per capita. Workers in developed countries
produce more with less effort because they have access to more machines, tools, and equipment to
perform much of the work.
Access to Knowledge The U.N. considers years of schooling to be the most critical measure of the ability
of an individual to gain access to knowledge needed for development. The assumption is that no matter
how poor the school, the longer the pupils attend, the more likely they are to learn something. The
average person aged 25 or older in a developed country has attended school for 11.5 years. The average
person that is aged 25 or older in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa has attended only 4.7 years of
schooling. The U.N. also forecasts the number of years an average 5-year-old will spend in school. In
developed countries, the U.N. expects that the average 5-year-old will spend an average of 16.3 years in
school. The expected average is 9.3 years in sub-Saharan Africa and 10.2 years in South Asia.
The fewer pupils a teacher has, the more likely that each student will receive instruction. The
pupil/teacher ratio is the number of enrolled students divided by the number of teachers. The literacy
rate is the percentage of a country’s people who can read and write. Students in developing countries are
at a disadvantage because most of the textbooks are not published in their native language. Improved
education is a major goal of many developing countries, but funds are scarce.
Health and Wealth Good health is as important a measure of development as wealth and knowledge,
according to the U.N. A goal of development is to provide the nutrition and medical services needed for
people to lead long and healthy lives.
A Long and Healthy Life The health indicator contributing to the HDI is life expectancy. The life
expectancy is 80 in developed countries, while life expectancy is 57 in sub-Saharan Africa. People are
healthier in developed countries than developing ones. When a person in a developed country gets sick,
the country possesses the resources to care for him or her. Longer life spans have led to a higher
percentage of older people who have retired and receive public support and a lower percentage of children
under age 15 who are too young to work and must also be supported by employed adults. Better health
and welfare also allow babies to survive infancy in developed countries.
Consumer Goods Part of the wealth generated in developed countries is used to purchase goods and
services. Especially important are goods related to transportation and communication, including motor
vehicles, telephones, and computers. These products are accessible to virtually all residents in developed
countries and are vital to the economy’s functioning and growth. In contrast, in developing countries,
these products do not play a central role in daily life for many people. Most people in developing
countries are familiar with vehicles and computers but cannot afford them. Cell phone ownership is
182
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 10: Development
actually expanding in developing countries, as these devices do not require the large expenditures
associated with connecting wires to each individual building.
Key Issue 2: Where Are Inequalities in Development Found?
Unequal and Uneven Development Income, gender, and region are all dimensions that can define
inequality within a country. Inequality is also present between countries in the core and periphery of
development.
Inequality-Adjusted HDI The Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) was created
by the U.N. to measure the extent of inequality in the world. HDI is modified to account for inequality
within a country, producing the IHDI. HDI and IHDI are the same when a country achieves perfect
equality. If the IHDI is lower than the HDI, the country has some inequality; the greater the difference
between the two measures, the greater the inequality. The highest levels of inequality are seen in subSaharan Africa and South Asia.
Inequality within Developing Countries Brazil and Turkey are among the world’s largest and most
populous countries. At the national scale, the two countries fall somewhere near the middle in terms of
HDI. Among the 186 countries with HDI scores, Turkey ranks 69th and Brazil ranks 79th. The two
countries have similar HDI scores, but Brazil has a lower IHDI, revealing more inequality in Turkey.
Inequality is also evident in the differences in GNI per capita among states or provinces within the
countries. In Turkey, wealth is concentrated in the western part of the country, closest to Europe. In the
east, where Kurdish people are clustered, wealth is low.
Inequality within Developed Countries Regional differences can be seen within developed countries by
examining variations in GNI per capita. These differences are less extreme than in developing countries.
For instance, in the United States, the GNI per capita is 122 percent of the national average in the
wealthiest region (New England), and 90 percent of the national average in the poorest region
(Southeast). Since 1980, inequality has grown in developed countries, including the United States and
U.K.
Gender Inequality A country’s overall level of development can mask inequalities in the status of men
and women. The U.N. uses two indices to measure gender inequality: the Gender Inequality Index (GII)
and the Gender-related Development Index (GDI). At best, women have achieved near-equality with men
in some countries, but in other countries the level of development for women lags far behind the level for
men. It is the belief of the U.N. that inequality between men and women is a major factor that prevents a
country from achieving a higher level of development.
Gender-Related Development Index The Gender-related Development Index (GDI) measures the
gender gap in the level of achievement for the three dimensions of the Human Development Index.
Countries are ranked based on their deviation from gender parity in the three factors of the HDI. If
females and males had exactly the same HDI scores, the GDI would be 1.000. The lowest scores are in
South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Southwest Asia, and North Africa.
183
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography
Gender Inequality Index The UN created the Gender Inequality Index (GII) to measure the extent of
each country’s gender inequality. The GII combines multiple measures: reproductive health, empowerment,
and the labor market. A score of 0 would indicate that men and women fare equally, and a score of 1.0
would indicate that women fare as poorly as possible in all measures. The higher the GII, the greater the
inequality between men and women. The GII is higher in developing countries than developed ones.
GII over Time The U.N. has discovered that gender inequality has declined since the 1990s in all but 4
of 138 countries for which time-series data are available. The greatest improvement has been in
Southwest Asia and North Africa. The improvement in gender inequality has been relatively modest in
the United States. The United States is ranked 47th in GII, while it also ranks 5th in HDI. This discrepancy
may be accounted for by the relatively high birth rate among teenage women and a higher mortality rate
among women during childbirth, and a low percentage of women in the national legislature relative to
other countries with high HDI.
Gender Empowerment and Employment The GII combines three sets of measures to come up with a
composite score for gender inequality: empowerment, employment, and reproductive health.
Empowerment In the context of gender inequality, empowerment refers to the ability of women to
achieve economic and political power. The empowerment dimension of GII is measured by two
indicators: the percentage of seats held by women in the national legislature and the percentage of women
who have completed high school.
National Legislature No specific gender-related skills are required to be elected as a representative and
to serve effectively. Despite this, fewer women than men hold positions of political power in both
developing and developed countries. Rwanda is the only country with a majority of women in its national
parliament or congress. The highest percentages are in Europe, with women constituting roughly onequarter of the members of national parliaments. The lowest rates are in Southwest Asia and North Africa.
Secondary School Worldwide, 54 percent of women have completed some secondary school, compared
to 64 percent of men. In North America, girls are more likely than boys to complete some high school,
and (slightly) more boys than girls are expected to complete some high school in Europe. Boys are much
more likely than girls to be high school graduates in developing countries, where for every 10 boys who
attend high school, only 6 girls attend as well. In South Asia, this gap is particularly high.
Labor Force The female labor force participation rate is the percentage of women holding full-time
jobs outside the home. Globally, 51 percent of women work outside the home, compared to 77 percent of
men. Generally, women in developed countries are more likely than women in developing countries to
hold full-time jobs outside the home. South Asia, Southwest Asia, and North Africa have substantial gaps
between male and female labor participation, while East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa have smaller gaps.
Reproductive Health Poor reproductive health is a major contributor to gender inequality around the
world.
184
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 10: Development
Reproductive Health The reproductive health factor of the GII is based on two indicators:
•
The maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die giving birth per 100,000 births.
The ratio is 16 deaths of mothers per 100,000 live births in developed countries and 171 in
developing countries.
•
The adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19. The rate in
developed countries is 19 births per 1,000 women ages 15 to 19, while the rate is 53 in
developing countries. The lowest teenage pregnancy rate is in Europe where it is below 10 per
1,000. In sub-Saharan Africa the teenage pregnancy rate is 110.
The U.N. includes reproductive health as a contributor to GII because in countries where effective control
of reproduction is universal, women have fewer children, and maternal and child health is improved.
Women in developing countries are more likely than women in developed countries to die in childbirth
and to give birth as teenagers. Countries that provide women a full range of reproductive health options
have a very low total fertility rate.
Core and Periphery The relationship between developed and developing countries is often described as
a north-south split because most of the developed counties are north of the equator, while many
developing countries are south. The U.S. social scientist Immanuel Wallerstein identified the relationship
between developed and developing countries as one of “core” and “periphery.” In a progressively unified
world economy, developed countries constitute an inner core area, while developing countries occupy
peripheral locations. Developing countries in the periphery have less access to the world centers of
consumption, communications, wealth, and power, which are concentrated in the core areas. Semiperiphery countries are those countries that are either intermediate in level of economic development or
situated close to both core and periphery regions.
HDI and Gender Equality Typically, development analysts anticipate that a more developed country
will have less gender inequality than a developing country.
Key Issue 3: Why Do Countries Face Challenges to Development?
Developing countries are confronted with two fundamental obstacles in attempting to stimulate more
rapid development:
•
Adopting policies that successfully promote development.
•
Finding funds to pay for development.
Two Paths to Development Developing countries can choose one of two models to promote
development: self-sufficiency or international trade.
Self-Sufficiency Path In the self-sufficiency model, countries encourage domestic production of goods,
discourage foreign ownership of business and resources, and protect their businesses from international
competition. Key elements of the self-sufficiency path to development include the following:
185
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography
•
Barriers limit the import of goofs from other places (using tariffs or quotas).
•
Fledging businesses are nursed to success by being isolated from competition with large
international corporations.
•
Investment is spread as uniformly as possible across all sectors of a country’s economy and in all
regions.
•
Incomes in the countryside keep pace with those in the city, and reducing poverty takes
precedence over encouraging a few people to become wealthy consumers.
Case Study: India For several decades after it gained independence from Britain in 1947, India was a
leading example of the self-sufficiency model. Limiting foreign companies from importing into India and
exercising strong control over companies operating in India were policies followed in this model by India.
International Trade Path International trade became more popular beginning in the late twentieth
century. The sale of raw materials, food, or manufactured products in the world market brings funds into
the country than can be used to finance development.
Rostow Model This approach is idealized in W.W. Rostow’s five-stage model, where countries fit into
one of the five following stages: traditional society; preconditions for takeoff; takeoff; drive to maturity;
age of mass consumption.
International Trade Examples Rostow’s model appears to have been followed by the four Asian
dragons (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong) and petroleum-rich Arabian Peninsula states
(S…
Purchase answer to see full
attachment